The Greek-related state of Xiutu and the Xianbei aristocracy*

 

The Hellenic-affiliated Kingdom of Xiutu and the Aristocracy of the Xianbei

D. N. Konidaris, konidaris@ieee.org, ch. 5.2.3 of the book CHINESE CIVILISATION AND ITS AEGEAN AFFINITIES

Abstract

 

This study examines the enigmatic Kingdom of Xiutu in the Gansu Corridor and explores its possible Hellenistic affiliations, focusing on the reign of King Xiutu and his legacy within early Han China and the Xianbei aristocracy. Drawing on Chinese historical sources, archaeological evidence, and recent scholarship, it reassesses the traditional identification of Xiutu as a Xiongnu ruler and advances the argument that the kingdom may instead represent a Greco-Bactrian or Greco-Saka polity established in northwestern China during the late second century BCE. Particular attention is given to the famous golden statue captured by General Huo Qubing, whose iconography and later depictions suggest Hellenistic religious and artistic influences. The study further analyzes the hypothesis that the name Xiutu corresponds to the Hellenistic royal title Soter, and traces the transmission of this legacy through Jin Midi and the influential Ban family, whose members played a central role in Han historiography, politics, and intellectual life. Finally, the article considers the possible genealogical and cultural connections between Xiutu and segments of the Xianbei military aristocracy, as well as the broader implications for understanding Sino-Western cultural exchange, the diffusion of Hellenistic art forms, and the early transmission of religious and philosophical ideas along the Silk Road.

 

 

 

 

 

According to the historical Book of Han (Han Shu), the kings of the Xiutu and Hunye kingdoms, who led "barbarian" Hu tribes and acted as allies of the Xiongnu,^5_61 controlled territories along the Gansu Corridor, thus hindering communication through this part of the Silk Road.^5_62 However, in 121 BCE, Emperor Wudi (漢武帝, 157–87 BCE) of the Han dynasty sent General Huo Qubing, who subjugated the two kingdoms and opened the vital commercial route. Consequently, the defeated kings, at the head of tens of thousands of their followers and fearing the wrath of the Xiongnu leader, were forced to surrender to the Han,^5_63 leading to the establishment of five vassal states under Han authority.^5_64 The victory of the Chinese general was resounding—eight thousand Hu were captured, and as spoils of war was taken the famous golden statue that Xiutu used in worship of Heaven.^5_65

It is worth noting, incidentally, that the tomb of general Huo Qubing is adorned with a stone statue of a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior—a sculptural innovation considered a Western influence in China. The famed golden statue of Xiutu is depicted in an 8th-century mural at the Mogao Caves, where Emperor Wu is also shown worshipping two Buddhist statues.

Fig. 3_12: Monumental sculpture from the mausoleum of Huo Qubing with evident Hellenistic aura

In the second part of his study “Dionysian Rituals and the Golden Zeus of China,” Christopoulos examines the celebrated golden statue of King Xiutu from Gansu,^5_67 aiming to determine its true historical context.^5_68 The discovery of the depiction of Xiutu’s statue in a Dunhuang Mogao Cave mural sheds light on this question—it reveals the unsuspected presence, during the time of Emperor Han Wudi, of Greco-Bactrians and their allies, the Saka and Sogdians, in Gansu. Connecting these events with the twelve gold-and-ivory statues that Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi had seized about a century earlier in the same region, we find that a Greco-Saka (or Greco-Bactrian) kingdom—composed of fortified cities—had its seat in central Gansu and was the first kingdom founded by Euthydemus I of Bactria. The implications of this discovery extend further, as it also suggests an alliance between the aforementioned first Emperor of Qin and the Greco-Saka kingdom of Gansu.

In his analysis, Christopoulos argues that the name Xiutu may be the Chinese equivalent of the Hellenistic royal title Soter (Σωτήρ),^5_69 and he emphasizes the likelihood that this king was not ethnically Xiongnu.^5_70 Jin Midi, the son of Xiutu, similarly ended up in Han China, but through his loyalty and service, he became one of Emperor Wu’s closest aides and was posthumously honored with the title Marquis of Reverence (Jinghou).^5_71 His devotion to duty and respectful demeanor were fully recognized by Emperor Wu, who appointed him as a regent to rule on behalf of his son, Liu Fuling,^5_71a1 as recorded by the renowned historian Ban Gu, who may have belonged to the same Xiutu lineage. This prominent figure appears in the mural paintings of the Eastern Han tomb in Helinge’er in modern-day Inner Mongolia,^5_71a2 as well as in the Wu Liang Shrine in Shandong, ^5_71a3 within a context that also reflects multiple Greek influences. Indeed, Jeremy Tanner has examined the artistic representations of historical events in both the Stoa Poikile (Στοά Ποικίλη) in Athens and the Wu Liang Shrine in present-day Shandong Province, identifying notable parallels in their visual storytelling, ^5_71a4  alongside other compelling similarities.^5_71a5

Ιστορία του Jin Midi, ιερό του Wu Liang ^5_71a6

Η καταγωγή των συγγραφέων του Han-shu από τους Xiongnu^5_71a7

 

Jin Midi, along with his younger brother Lun, founded a political faction that maintained an influential role for generations.^5_72 Prominent members of the Jin and Ban families later produced major political figures as well as notable artists and historians.^5_73

An interesting theory that could explain certain Hellenistic customs and artistic associations noted among the Murong Xianbei comes from the work of Yao Weiyuan (姚薇元, 1905–1985),^5_74 who argued that King Xiutu was an ancestor of some members of the Xianbei military aristocracy. Sanping Chen likewise notes that Chen Yuan, an expert on the origins of Lu Fayan (author of the monumental rhyming dictionary Qieyun),^5_75 found this “barbarian” Xianbei lineage of Lu Fayan quite surprising.

Related to the aforementioned Hellenistic artistic associations of the Xianbei is a golden belt kept in the Qinghai Museum. The museum dates the belt to the Tang dynasty, but Christopoulos observes that:^5_76

“There is also a silver-gilt Hellenistic belt with Greek mythological figures, originally inlaid with gemstones, found in Qinghai Dulan (都蘭) and said to be from the Kushano-Sassanian period (Figure 30). Displayed at the Qinghai Museum, the depiction of the divinities as the prophetic Thriae (Θριαί) bee-nymphs and Dionysos makes it perhaps earlier than the third century AD, and a Thriae wearing a Greco-Bactrian helmet demonstrates clearly its origins. Why

would the Sassanians, in that representation, have used the helmet of a Greco-Bactrian king instead of a helmet closer in style to their own cultural references? Dulan is in the area where the Murong Xianbei ruled; it is also possible that the belt was made right there, in the Greco-Saka kingdom of Gansu, not in Bactria.”

 

He further adds in the footnote to Image 30:

Figure 30. (a) Hellenistic silver-gilt belt of 90 cm, Qinghai Museum. Two figures of Dionysos seem to be guarding a door, with the thyrsos in the middle. (b) Two winged half-bee Thriae nymphs hold a wreath (c, d). One of the two is clearly wearing a GrecoBactrian helmet (c). The king and queen are seated and holding a wreath, symbol of wealth, power, glory, and eternity. They seem to hold on their knees the same belt with round sections (e). All the figures have one hand on the stomach and the other holding a wreath (c, d).

Fig. 5_5: Gilded Silver Belt with Greek Gods in Emblems

Fig. 5_6: Emblem with a nymph from the belt (left) & Gold plaques with engraving of winged bee-women, probably of the Thriae (right)

Summary on Xiutu:

This enigmatic and significant historical figure in Chinese history was likely of Greek origin. He had a son named Midi (Rindi), who would later be called “Golden Midi” by Emperor Wudi of the Han dynasty (157–87 BCE). According to the Hanshu—the official dynastic history of the early Han—the king Xiutu had his capital in what later became one of the Han’s “Ten Prefectures of Wuwei” and is described by most historians as a Xiongnu king.^5_77

Jin Midi was born in 134 BCE into a royal family allied with the Xiongnu and was probably of Greco-Bactrian descent, ruling the central Gansu region. He was the heir of King Xiutu (Soter/Σωτήρ), one of the most important kings serving under Gunchen Chanyu, supreme leader of the Xiongnu. After Gunchen’s death in 126 BCE, his brother Yizhixie succeeded him. During this time, King Xiutu and another great ruler, King Hunxie, defended the southwestern borders of the Xiongnu against the Han dynasty—in what is now central and western Gansu.

This same person, Jin Midi, together with Xiutu, became the progenitor of the famous Ban family.^5_78

According to Sinologist Sanping Chen, this family produced not only Ban Biao (3–54 CE), Ban Gu (32–92 CE), and Ban Zhao (ca. 49–ca. 120 CE)—the father, son, and daughter trio who authored the first dynastic history of China, Hanshou—but also the courageous and capable diplomat-general Ban Chao (33–103 CE). Ban Chao, reportedly with a force of only 36 fellow adventurers, reestablished Han dominance over Central Asia (then known as the Western Regions) after the collapse under the tragic usurper Wang Mang (45 BCE–23 CE). His achievements were later continued by his son Ban Yong, who was born in Central Asia.

The historiography written by the Ban family had a profound influence on restoring Confucian thought, which was strongly virtue-oriented and pro-agrarian. If historian Hill’s interpretation is correct, their compassionate reading of history became the common intellectual mindset of later generations.

Fig. 5_7: 8th century mural in the Mogao Caves depicting Emperor Wu (worshipping two Buddhist statues) & the golden statue of Xiutu

Fig. 5_8: Was the pioneering astronomer, historian, philosopher, writer and musician Ban Zhao of partial Greek descent?

 

The intriguing theory proposed by Yao Weiyuan — that King Xiutu was of Greek origin and ancestor of certain members of the Xianbei military aristocracy — helps explain some of the Hellenistic customs and artistic references found among the Murong Xianbei.^5_79 Members of this “ethnic” group held powerful positions in Chinese aristocracy for many generations, and by the 4th–5th centuries CE, they even governed the country.^5_80

In this sense, the Greek contribution to Chinese intellectual history can be understood as having an additional channel of cultural communication, fostering artistic and philosophical exchange. Furthermore, the introduction of Buddhism into ancient China was another significant conduit for the diffusion of Greco-Indian Gandharan artistic traits, as well as related religious and philosophical ideas.

The Xiongnu chanyu's consort (Princess Nangong) and Jin Midi (The Great Han Emperor Wu) in Korean film^5_80a

 

NOTES

 

5_61. Christopoulos 2022, p. 70. See also Qiang 羌 References in the Book of Han 汉书 Part 1 & 2 (transl. by Rachel Meakin).

5_62. Meakin (part 1), n. 74.

5_63. Meakin (part 1), p. 17; Christopoulos 2022, p. 70. Επί του θέματος αναφέρονται περισσότερες εκδοχές: Zhongxiao Wang 2015, p. 113; Byung Ho Lee 2011, p. 143, nn. 26-28; Wontack Hong 2012, p. 233; Miller 2009, p. 114.

5_64. Zhongxiao Wang 2015, p. 113; Miller 2009, p. 114, n. 4; Di Cosmo 2009, p. 204.

5_65. Miller 2009, p. 114, n. 38.

5_66. Duan Qingbo 2023, fig. 9.

5_67. However, it has been argued, curiously and vaguely (Whitfield 2012, p. 189, nn. 33-35) that the term Putu (Podo: 蒲圖) was one of the many terms - ways of translating the term Buddha in classical Chinese. Although the term Fotuo (Bulta: 佛陀) was most often used, there were also other terms such as Futu (Budo: 浮屠), Fotu (Buldo: 佛圖), Putu (Podo 蒲圖) and Xiutu (Hyudo: 休屠).

Reference to the Gold Man is also made in: Dubs 1937, n. 19.

5_68. Christopoulos 2022, p. 1.

5_69. Christopoulos 2022, p. 70.

5_70. Xumeng Sun 2020, p. 61; Lan-Ying Tseng 2008.  According to Christopoulos (Christopoulos 2022, p. 69) The “Records of the Grand Historian, Collected Annotations” (Shiji Jijie 史記集解), translated by James R. Ware, is, however, very clear on the likelihood that King Xiutu was not a Xiongnu from Mongolia. Jin Midi was described as “eight chi two cun tall with a stern appearance.”

5_71. Byung Ho Lee 2011, p. 143, nn. 26-28; Miller 2009, p. 114, n. 39.

5_71a1. Loewe 2000, p. 2959; Pan Yue 2026, p. 521; Ban Gu 1974, p. 157.

5_71a2. Xumeng Sun 2020, p. 61. Όμως η πληροφορία δεν επιβεβαιώνεται από άλλη πηγή, βλ. Knapp 2005, p. 53.

5_71a3. Kuroda and Knapp 2010, p. 138; Liu 2008; Wu 1989: The funerary shrine of the Confucian scholar Wu Liang, created in AD 151, is the most important surviving pre-Buddhist monument in China. That is to say, it is the most important single work of visual art from the centuries that set the patterns of Chinese thought for almost two millennia. The importance of the shrine lies in the beauty of the stone reliefs on its walls and, especially, in the remarkably comprehensive iconography of its nearly one hundred scenes. They constitute, in effect, a coherent symbolic structure of the universe as the Han Chinese conceived it. This structure consists of three sections: the ceiling carvings present the Mandate of Heaven; the scenes on the two gables depict the paradise of the immortals; and the 44 stories related on the walls illustrate the history of mankind, starting with the creators of human culture and ending with a portrait of Wu Liang, who designed his own memorial. The author finds the shrine comparable, in the comprehensiveness and cultural significance of its iconography, to the cathedral at Chartres or the Sistine Chapel. The many writings that have discussed the shrine over the centuries constitute a history of the approaches Eastern and Western scholars have taken to Chinese art. The first part of this book sets out these contributions and approaches as it recounts the history of the preservation and reconstruction of the shrine. The second part analyzes the cosmological significance of the shrine, exploring the internal relationships between the reliefs, and in the process translating for the first time into English all the literary inscriptions that accompany the carvings.

5_71a4. Beecroft 2021, p. 97.

5_71a5. Wu 1989. While the Wu Liang Shrine is deeply rooted in Chinese Han culture, scholars have explored potential "Hellenistic connections" or influences resulting from early Silk Road interactions.

Artistic Evolution: The shrine's reliefs represent an "archaic revival" of earlier Western Han styles, yet scholars have noted that the treatment of figures and narratives might reflect a distant awareness of foreign artistic traditions.

Narrative Style and Space: Similarities in pictorial art, such as the use of registers (rows) for storytelling and the rendering of three-dimensional space, have prompted comparison to Hellenistic Greek art, which similarly aimed to translate history into visual narratives.

Technique: While the technique is distinctly Chinese (low-relief rubbing), the thematic focus on portraying historical "scenes" in a structured, almost panoramic manner, has been compared with similar artistic developments in the Greek world, suggesting a potential (though indirect) cultural exchange.

Motifs: Some argue for indirect influence through Central Asian intermediaries (such as Sogdians or Iranian cultures), which could have facilitated the transmission of Hellenistic-inspired themes—like specialized animal husbandry or specific art motifs—into China by the Eastern Han.

 

Artistic Motifs: Similar to the Guyuan Sarcophagus, tomb art in the region of Helinge’er tomb sometimes incorporated foreign elements like vine scrolls, mythical creatures, or foreign artistic techniques. The presence of non-local items in tombs suggests that Central Asian trade networks were bringing items with Mediterranean or Near-Eastern motifs into Chinese elite culture. In Summary: The Helinge’er tomb serves as a crucial piece of evidence for studying the cultural exchange between Han China and the steppe, showing how, by the 2nd century CE, Hellenistic-inspired art and motifs had become part of the artistic repertoire found in North China and the Eurasian steppe.

5_71a6. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Story_of_Jin_Midi.JPG The story of Jin Midi. Wu Liang Shrine, Jiaxiang, Shandong. 2nd century AD. Ink rubbings derived from stone-carved reliefs as represented in Feng Yunpeng and Feng Yunyuan, Jinshi suo (1824 edition).

5_71a7. Sanping Chen 2011, p. 36.

5_72. Sanping Chen 2011, p. 35, n. 5.

5_73. Sanping Chen 2011. Briefly, we mention: Ban Biao, Ban Gu and Ban Zhao, a trio of father, son and daughter, who co-wrote the historiography Han-shu. The daughter of the first is Ban Zhao, a mathematician, astronomer, writer and teacher of aristocrats, etc.

5_74. Christopoulos 2022, pp. 74-75, nn. 100-102. See the book by: Yao Weiyuan 2013.

5_75. Sanping Chen. 2011, p. 36.

5_76. Christopoulos 2022, p. 99, fig. 30.

5_77. Christopoulos 2022.

5_78. Sanping Chen 2011, p. 33. The excerpt is as follows:

Readers of China's early imperial history cannot help being impressed by the exceptional talents in the Ban family of the Later Han dynasty, known also as the Eastern Han (25-220). The family produced not only Ban Biao at (3-54 CE), Ban GuAl (32-92 CE) and Ban Zhao PIS' (ca. 49- ca.120 CE), the father-son-daughter trio that authored China's first ever dynastic history Han-shu, but also the extraordinarily daring and capable diplomat-general Ban Chao (33-103), who singlehandedly (reportedly with a force of only 36 fellow adventurers) re-established the Han domination in Central Asia (known at the time as the Western Regions) after the debacle under the tragicomic pretender Wang Mang (45 BC-23 AD). Chao's exploit was further carried on by his Central Asia-born son Ban Yong. Ban Biao's daughter Ban Zhao, a strong mathematician and astronomer in completing Han-shu, was a respected tutor of princesses and imperial consorts and was later reverentially known as Cao Dagu ("Grand Dame Cao," after her husband's family name). She also happened to be one of the earliest known female authors in Chinese history, responsible for such classics like Nüjie (Lessons for Women). According to Hou Han-shu (84.2785)1, she even played an important political role during the regency of Empress Dowager Deng. 

5_79. Christopoulos 2022, pp. 74-75.

5_80. Sanping Chen 1996.

5_80a. Eng 2011, fig. 10.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp326_dionysian_rituals_china.pdf

Christopoulos, L. 2022. "Dionysian Rituals and the Golden Zeus of China," Sino-Platonic Papers 326, pp. 1-123.

 

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928567

Sanping Chen. 2011. “Two Notes on the Xiongnu Ancestry of the Authors of ‘Hon-shu’,” Central Asiatic Journal 55 (1), pp. 33-41.

 

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41931010

Sanping Chen. 1996. “A-Gan revisited — The Tuobas cultural and political heritage,” Journal of Asian History 30 (1), pp. 46-78.

 

Meakin, R., ed. Qiang 羌 References in the Book of Han 汉书 Part 1, <https://www.academia.edu/9180831/Qiang_%E7%BE%8C_References_in_the_Book_of_Han_%E6%B1%89%E4%B9%A6_Part_1> (22 Nov. 2023).

 

Meakin, R., ed. “Qiang 羌 References in The Book of Han 汉书, Part 2 (Chapter 79 to Chapter 99),” Qiang History – Translations, < https://www.academia.edu/11073162/Qiang_%E7%BE%8C_References_in_the_Book_of_Han_%E6%B1%89%E4%B9%A6_Part_2> (16 March 2019).

 

https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/37048

Zhongxiao Wang. 2015. World Views and Military Policies in the Early Roman and Western Han Empires, Univ. of Leiden.

 

https://repository.upenn.edu/entities/publication/d7403e54-4819-44f8-9434-ccc93e630998

Miller, B. K. 2009. "Power Politics in the Xiongnu Empire" (diss. Univ. of Pennsylvania).

 

https://backend.production.deepblue-documents.lib.umich.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/1b574fc0-dd65-485c-bbd1-dd5ad7f8638b/content

Byung Ho Lee 2011. "Forging the Imperial Nation: Imperialism, Nationalism, and Ethnic Boundaries in China’s Longue Durée" (diss. Univ. of Michigan).

 

http://www.hongwontack.pe.kr/homepage4/data/48001.pdf

Wontack Hong. 2012. East Asian History. A Tripolar Approach, Korea.

 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298895771_Han_Frontiers_Toward_an_Integrated_View

Di Cosmo, N. 2009. "Han Frontiers: Toward an Integrated View," Journal of the American Oriental Society 129 (2), pp. 199-214.

 

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-chinese-history/article/sinowestern-cultural-exchange-as-seen-through-the-archaeology-of-the-first-emperors-necropolis/3F6506262A9ED57C9DC3827EEAA6B230

Duan Qingbo. 2023. "Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis," Journal of Chinese History 中國歷史學刊 7 (1), pp. 21 - 72.

 

http://www.acmuller.net/kor-bud/collected_works.html

Whitfield, R., ed. 2012. Korean Buddhist Culture. Accounts of a Pilgrimage, Monuments, and Eminent Monks (Collected Works of Korean Buddhism 10), Korea.

 

Dubs, H. H. 1937. The "Golden Man" of Former Han Times," T'oung Pao (second series) 33 (1), pp. 1-14.

 

https://backend.production.deepblue-documents.lib.umich.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/1b574fc0-dd65-485c-bbd1-dd5ad7f8638b/content

Byung Ho Lee 2011. "Forging the Imperial Nation: Imperialism, Nationalism, and Ethnic Boundaries in China’s Longue Durée" (diss. Univ. of Michigan).

 

https://books.google.gr/books/about/%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E8%83%A1%E5%A7%93%E8%80%83.html?id=jEDCAQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y

Yao Weiyuan. 2013. Έρευνα για το Επώνυμο του Χου στις Βόρειες Δυναστείες (Αναθεωρημένη έκδοση), 北朝胡姓考（修訂本), Wuhan University Press.

 

Liu, C. Y., ed. 2008. Rethinking Recarving: Ideals, Practices, and Problems of the "Wu Family Shrines" and Han China, Princeton University Press.

 

https://dokumen.pub/qdownload/a-biographical-dictionary-of-the-qin-former-han-and-xin-periods-221-bcad-24-90-04-10364-3.html

Loewe, M. 2000. A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC-AD 24), Leiden: Brill.

 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305228472_Selfless_Offspring_Filial_Children_and_Social_Order_in_Medieval_China

Knapp, K. N. 2005. Selfless Offspring. Filial Children and Social Order in Medieval China, Publisher: University of Hawaii Press.

 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/399297565_Ancient_Greece

Pan Yue. 2026. Comparative Studies on Chinese and Western Civilizations, Springer.

 

Lillian Lan-Ying Tseng. 2008. "Mediums and Messages: The Wu Family Shrines and Cultural Production in Qing China," in Rethinking Recarving: Ideals, Practices, and Problems of the "Wu Family Shrines" and Han China, ed. Cary Liu Princeton: The Princeton University Art Museum, pp. 260-283.

 

https://ucalgary.scholaris.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/0f570209-afee-4041-913d-afb541d76c2d/content

Xumeng Sun. 2020. "Identifying the Huns and the Xiongnu (or Not): Multi-Faceted Implications and Difficulties" (thes. Univ. of Calgary). 

 

Beecroft, A. 2021. Rev. of G.E.R. Lloyd and Jingyi Jenny Zhao, Ancient Greece and China Compared, in Comparative Critical Studies 18.1, pp. 95–121.

 

https://arthistory.uchicago.edu/faculty/publications/wu-liang-shrine-ideology-early-chinese-pictorial-art

https://archive.org/details/wuliangshrineide0000wuhu/page/50/mode/2up?q=Greek

https://arthistory.uchicago.edu/faculty/publications/wu-liang-shrine-ideology-early-chinese-pictorial-art

Wu, Hung. 1989. The Wu Liang Shrine: the ideology of early Chinese pictorial art, Stanford University Press.

 

https://archive.org/details/courtiercommoner0000bang_f3r3

https://dokumen.pub/courtier-and-commoner-in-ancient-china-selections-from-the-history-of-the-former-han-0231083548-9780231083546.html

Ban Gu. 1974. Courtier and Commoner in Ancient China: Selections from the History of the Former Han, trans. B. Watson, New York: Columbia University.

 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391516467_China-Korea_Culture_Wars_and_National_Myths_TV_Dramas_as_Battleground

Eng, R. Y. 2011. “China-Korea Culture Wars and National Myths: TV Dramas as Battleground,” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Jap

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/400572351_The_Hellenic-affiliated_Kingdom_of_Xiutu_and_the_Aristocracy_of_the_Xianbei

Magical Maha Maya - Epic Dimensions in Buddhist Art

Pluto abducting Proserpina (Persephone), Cinerary altar with a tabula without inscription, Marble, Baths of Diocletian, Rome, 2nd century CE (Antonine Age 138-180 CE), National Roman Museum, Italy. Proserpina kidnapped Kircheriano Terme.jpg

Ashram of sage Kanva depicted on terracotta plaque, 2nd century BCE

3.1 Shakuntala medallion, Two-sided terracotta disc, Ø 7.7 cm, Bhita, India, 1st-2nd century CE, Kolkata: Indian Museum, Kolkata (N.S.2297)

3.2 Heavenly Arcadia stone-disc, Gandhara, Lahore, Private collection, 2nd century CE

(After Bopearachchi)

To begin with, a terracotta pendant from Bhita near Allahabad depicts a sylvan glade in which the relentless Hades forcibly carries off Persephone in a four-horse chariot. The tiny detail correlates with Pluto’s abduction carved on a 2nd-century Roman cinerary altar.1 At the doorway to the Chaitya-Griha next to a bouquet of six flowers with six-petals earth-mother goddess dashes after the chariot. The peacock and deer close to a lotus pond laud the sacred abode of Maha Vihara Maya Devi worshiped as Lakshmi. At the distant horizon a couple appears behind the fenced-in sanctuary conceived as the home of the blessed after death (3.1). A corresponding stone-disc with miraculous trees encircled by meandering lotus pool is where the souls find a final resting place. In the lower right of the fragment from Gandhara is the couple in a horse-drawn chariot. In the transient art of Perpetual Limbo the heroic and the untainted float in the clouds, and where the cloud ends the divine couple converse by the fenced-in wagon-vaulted Chaitya-Vihara.2 The crowning touch to the barrel roof is a row of Purna-Kalash finials denoting the abode of gods and goddesses (3.2). The dream vision of a Pure Land Elysium carved on the stonedisc from Gandhara is similar to the pictorial relief of Arcadia stamped on both sides of the Bhita terracotta disc just 7.7 cm in diameter. The small stone-disc and the mold for the superfine Bhita medallion were doubtlessly made by an ivory carver or gem engraver.

The repetition of everlasting Pure Land indicates that the sculptors had access to pattern books managed by a Sutradhar. The unique Greco-Buddhist ex-votos are strikingly similar to the much larger Greek marble oscillum discs typically suspended in a temple colonnade or from a tree.

Άς αρχίσουμε με ένα πήλινο κρεμαστό κόσμημα από την Bhita πλησίον του Allahabad το οποίο απεικονίζει ένα δασικό ξέφωτο όπου ο αδυσώπητος Άδης αρπάζει βίαια την Περσεφόνη με ένα άρμα τεσσάρων αλόγων. Η μικροσκοπική λεπτομέρεια συσχετίζεται με την απαγωγή του Πλούτωνα, σκαλισμένη σε ένα ρωμαϊκό τεφροδόχο βωμό του 2ου αιώνα.1 Στην πόρτα του Chaitya-Griha, δίπλα σε ένα μπουκέτο από έξι λουλούδια με έξι πέταλα, η θεά της γης-μητέρας τρέχει πίσω από το άρμα. Το παγώνι και το ελάφι κοντά σε μια λίμνη με λωτό δοξάζουν την ιερή κατοικία της Maha Vihara Maya Devi, που λατρευόταν ως Lakshmi. Στον μακρινό ορίζοντα, ένα ζευγάρι εμφανίζεται πίσω από το περιφραγμένο ιερό, που θεωρείται ως το σπίτι των ευλογημένων μετά θάνατον (3.1). Ένας αντίστοιχος λίθινος δίσκος με θαυματουργά δέντρα, περιτριγυρισμένος από ελικοειδή λίμνη με λωτό, είναι το σημείο όπου οι ψυχές βρίσκουν την τελική κατοικία. Κάτω δεξιά στο θραύσμα από την Gandhara παρουσιάζεται το ζευγάρι σε ένα ιππήλατο άρμα. Στην μεταβατική τέχνη του Perpetual Limbo[1], το ηρωικό και το αμόλυντο επιπλέουν στα σύννεφα, και εκεί που τελειώνει το σύννεφο, το θεϊκό ζευγάρι συνομιλεί δίπλα στην περιφραγμένη, θολωτή Chaitya-Vihara.2 Η κορυφαία πινελιά στην οροφή σε σχήμα βαρελιού είναι μια σειρά από απολήξεις Purna-Kalash[2] που υποδηλώνουν την κατοικία θεών και θεαινών (3.2). Το ονειρικό όραμα ενός Ηλυσίου της Αγνής Γης, σκαλισμένο στον λίθινο δίσκο από την Gandhara, είναι παρόμοιο με το εικονογραφικό ανάγλυφο της Arcadia, που είναι σφραγισμένο και στις δύο πλευρές του δίσκου από τερακότα της Bhita, διαμέτρου μόλις 7,7 εκατοστών. Ο μικρός πέτρινος δίσκος και το καλούπι για το εξαιρετικά λεπτό μετάλλιο της Bhita αναμφίβολα κατασκευάστηκαν από έναν γλύπτη ελεφαντόδοντου ή χαράκτη πολύτιμων λίθων.

Η επανάληψη της αιώνιας Αγνής Γης υποδηλώνει ότι οι γλύπτες είχαν πρόσβαση σε βιβλία μοτίβων που διαχειριζόταν ένας Sutradhar[3]. Τα μοναδικά ελληνοβουδιστικά αναθήματα είναι εντυπωσιακά παρόμοια με τους πολύ μεγαλύτερους ελληνικούς μαρμάρινους δίσκους ταλαντώσεων[4]  που συνήθως αιωρούνται ανηρτημένοι σε μια κιονοστοιχία ναού ή από ένα δέντρο.

The Kattahari Jatakam

In patriotic archaeology, the superb vision of Arcadia captured in the votive discs is eagerly taken up as the “Sign of Shakuntala” from Kalidasa’s Abhijnana-Sakuntala, a Sanskrit classic play of the early Gupta period. The signet ring as a “Sign of Acknowledgment” is critical to the love story of Shakuntala brought up in a secluded hermitage.3 Brahmadatta the King of Banaras rode into the woodlands on his chariot and came upon Shakuntala. A dream conception came about in their brief embrace.

Brahmadatta departed saying, “If it is a girl let my signet ring nurture the child, if not bring the boy and the ring back to me.” Shakuntala took the boy to meet his father but on the way, the ring slid into a river and the king could not recognize Shakuntala without the ring. The same story in the Buddhist Kattahari Jatakam translated by E. B. Cowell tells that when the King of Banaras embraced the damsel the Bodhisattva entered her womb like the bolts of Indra. But without the keepsake signet ring, the King of Banaras would not acknowledge his son. To establish her son’s birthright, the mother swung the child and chucked him up into the air declaring that he would fall and die if he is not the king’s [...] son. The toddler sat cross-legged in space, then descended to sit on the lap of his father the king. Later, the Bodhisattva ruled Banaras as the renowned Katthawahna bearer.

Daniel Chester French's "Abraham Lincoln" prominently depicts fasces on the ends of the armrests. (NPS)[5]

Earliest depiction of a fasces, c. 610 BC, discovered as a grave good in Vetulonia in 1897[7]

Kattha means a bundle of sticks or rods in Sanskrit. A bundle of rods bound together around an ax with the blade projecting called fasces heralded magistral power in ancient Rome. The emblem of authority might also indicate the Avestan barez, the baresman bundle linked to Haoma performed for strength, good health, and undying spirit. Zoroastrian baresman bundle carried by Persian Magi is attested by Strabo and Buddhist artworks. Parthia was then allied to Kushan South Asia known as the Yavana Greek Kingdom. It is said that the Satrap of Barygaza, modern Bharuch formerly known as Broach, augmented wealth by importing Yavana dancing girls and singing boys, now colloquially Bacha bazi and Bacha posh in Afghanistan. A couple of reliefs from Gandhara depict a bundle of sticks or more likely sanctified Kusha grass known as Darbha (Desmotachya bipinnata) said to purify ritual offerings (3.3). The halo splits the terrestrials from the celestial Buddhas in a shallow aedicule framed by attached

Corinthian pillars, which as an architectural monument marks the funerary altar of a mausoleum. At right, the acolyte holding Vajra in hand is Vajrapani unfailingly called Hercules, the protector and the psychopomp guiding newly deceased souls from Earth to the afterlife. The sculptured sanctuary of The Undying Spirit is similar to the mythological subjects carved on contemporary Asiatic Roman sarcophagi that outfitted burials when Christian faith in bodily resurrection spread. The attached columns framing the frieze is derived from the Romans. Four similar engaged fluted Corinthian columns frame the façade of Triumphal Arch of Septimius Severus (145-211 CE) in Roman Forum dedicated in 203 to commemorate the Parthian victories in 195-196.

Το Kattahari Jatakam[9]

Στην πατριωτική αρχαιολογία, το υπέροχο όραμα της Αρκαδίας που αποτυπώνεται στους αναθηματικούς δίσκους γίνεται δεκτό με ενθουσιασμό ως το "Sign of Shakuntala" από το Abhijnana-Sakuntala του Kalidasa, ένα κλασικό σανσκριτικό έργο της πρώιμης περιόδου Gupta. Το σφραγιστικό δακτυλίδι ως "Σημείο Αναγνωρίσεως" είναι κρίσιμο για την ιστορία αγάπης της Shakuntala που μεγάλωσε σε ένα απομονωμένο ερημητήριο.3 Ο Brahmadatta, βασιλιάς του Banaras, μπήκε στα δάση με το άρμα του και συνάντησε τη Shakuntala. Μια ονειρική σύλληψη πραγματοποιήθηκε κατά την σύντομη περίπτυξή τους.

Ο Brahmadatta έφυγε λέγοντας: «Αν είναι κορίτσι, ας αναθρέψει το παιδί το σφραγιστικό δακτυλίδι μου, αν όχι, φέρτε μου πίσω το αγόρι μαζύ και το δαχτυλίδι». Η Shakuntala πήρε το αγόρι για να συναντήσει τον πατέρα του, αλλά στο δρόμο, το δαχτυλίδι γλίστρησε σε ένα ποτάμι και ο βασιλιάς δεν μπορούσε να αναγνωρίσει τη Shakuntala χωρίς το δαχτυλίδι. Η ίδια ιστορία στο βουδιστικό Kattahari Jatakam, μεταφρασμένο από τον E. B. Cowell, αναφέρει ότι όταν ο Βασιλιάς του Banaras αγκάλιασε την κοπέλα, ο Bodhisattva μπήκε στη μήτρα της σαν τον σύρτη (ή μάνδαλο) του Indra. Αλλά χωρίς το αναμνηστικό δαχτυλίδι-σφραγίδα, ο Βασιλιάς του Banaras δεν αναγνώριζε τον γιο του. Για να εδραιώσει το δικαίωμα πρωτοτοκίας του γιου της, η μητέρα κούνησε το παιδί και το πέταξε στον αέρα, δηλώνοντας ότι θα έπεφτε και θα πέθαινε αν δεν ήταν ο γιος του βασιλιά [...]. Το νήπιο καθόταν σταυροπόδι στο κενό και στη συνέχεια κατέβαινε για να καθίσει στην αγκαλιά του πατέρα του, του βασιλιά. Αργότερα, ο Bodhisattva  κυβέρνησε τον Banaras ως ο διάσημος φορέας της Katthawahna.

Kattha[10] σημαίνει μια δέσμη από ραβδιά ή ράβδους στα σανσκριτικά. Μια δέσμη από ράβδους δεμένες μεταξύ τους γύρω από ένα τσεκούρι με τη λεπίδα να προεξέχει, που ονομάζεται fasces, προμήνυε την κυριαρχική δύναμη στην αρχαία Ρώμη.[12] Το έμβλημα της εξουσίας μπορεί επίσης να υποδηλώνει το Avestan barez, τη δέσμη του baresman που συνδέεται με το Haoma που εκτελείται για δύναμη, καλή υγεία και αθάνατο πνεύμα. Η δέσμη των Ζωροαστρών που κουβαλούσαν Πέρσες Μάγοι μαρτυρείται από τον Στράβωνα και βουδιστικά έργα τέχνης. Η Παρθία τότε συμμάχησε με το Kushan της Νότιας Ασίας, γνωστό ως το Ελληνικό Βασίλειο των Yavana. Λέγεται ότι ο Σατράπης της Barygaza, του σύγχρονου Bharuch, παλαιότερα γνωστού ως Broach, αύξησε τον πλούτο εισάγοντας κορίτσια που χόρευαν και αγόρια που τραγουδούσαν από τα Yavana, τώρα γνωστά ως Bacha bazi και Bacha posh στο Αφγανιστάν. Μερικά ανάγλυφα από τη Gandhara απεικονίζουν μια δέσμη από ραβδιά ή, πιο πιθανό, αγιασμένο γρασίδι Kusha, γνωστό ως Darbha (Desmotachya bipinnata), που λέγεται ότι καθαρίζει τις τελετουργικές προσφορές (3.3). Το φωτοστέφανο χωρίζει τους γήινους από τους ουράνιους Βούδες σε ένα ρηχό κιονόκρανο πλαισιωμένο από προσαρτημένους κορινθιακούς κίονες, το οποίο ως αρχιτεκτονικό μνημείο σηματοδοτεί τον ταφικό βωμό ενός μαυσωλείου. Στα δεξιά, ο ακόλουθος που κρατάει τη Vajra στο χέρι είναι ο Vajrapani, που ονομάζεται αναμφισβήτητα Ηρακλής, ο προστάτης και ο ψυχοπομπός που καθοδηγεί τις πρόσφατα νεκρές ψυχές από τη Γη στη μετά θάνατον ζωή. Το γλυπτό ιερό του Αθάνατου Πνεύματος είναι παρόμοιο με τα μυθολογικά θέματα που είναι σκαλισμένα σε σύγχρονες ασιατικές ρωμαϊκές σαρκοφάγους που στόλιζαν τις ταφές όταν εξαπλώθηκε η χριστιανική πίστη στη σωματική ανάσταση. Οι προσαρτημένοι κίονες που πλαισιώνουν τη ζωφόρο προέρχονται από τους Ρωμαίους. Τέσσερις παρόμοιοι εμπλεκόμενοι ραβδωτοί κορινθιακοί κίονες πλαισιώνουν την πρόσοψη της Θριαμβικής Αψίδας του Σεπτίμιου Σεβήρου (145-211 μ.Χ.) στη Ρωμαϊκή Αγορά, η οποία αφιερώθηκε το 203 για να τιμήσει τις νίκες των Πάρθων το 195-196.

3.3 Sanctuary of Undying Spirit, Schist, H.38 cm, Gandhara, 2nd century CE

Lahore Museum, Pakistan[15]

The baresman symbol of the Magi and the Zoroastrian faith spread from Central Asia to the Pamirs and Gandhara where the Buddha holding a baresman bundle [..] sanctifies.4 Hercules crops up wherever the Buddha goes, which is also Greco-Roman heroic homoeroticism. Three men of different social strata come together in the Peshawar frieze and Hercules standing close to Buddha is true to form (3.4). The tableau unfolds as if on a stage; bearded Hercules with a shock of hair resembles Taranis the Celtic thunder god with the wheel mentioned by the Roman poet Lucan (39-65 CE) in his epic poem Pharsalia. Barefoot Hercules wearing the short, off-shoulder rough garment might as well be a freed Celtic slave. But his bulging waist is a furtive comment on his prosperous pouch and propitious nature. The thunderbolt in his hand appears like a bundle of manuscript and he holds a flywhisk to signify the regality of the Buddha distinguished by halo (3.5). The beardless but mustached Buddha with top knot wears a tunic and a palla draped over both his shoulders. The barefoot men striding forward realistically is certainly an offshoot of Greco-Roman theater. Stylistically the Berlin relief is similar to the Peshawar frieze suggesting the hand of the same sculptor. He seems to confirm that the frieze is an eyewitness account of the Mystery plays.

3.4 Haoma of Undying Spirit, Schist, H.39 cm, Gandhara, 2nd century CE

Peshawar Museum, Pakistan

In “The Lost Ring of Sankuntala” published in the Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society (Vol. VII, 1921), Surendra Nath Majumdar Shastri admits that poet Kalidasa borrowed the ring episode from a Greek source. The idea of Shakuntala dropping the keepsake ring into the water, which is swallowed by a fish caught by a fisherman pass into the hands of the palace guard has a charm that can be traced to Herodotus (484-431 BCE). According to the Greek historian[20] Polycrates (532 BCE), the king of Samos amplified his domain in the Aegean Sea. His friend Amasis, the king of Egypt advised him to neutralize his superpower by sacrificing something very precious. Accordingly, Polycrates took off his treasured gold emerald ring and threw it into the ocean. However, his irreplaceable loss caused great anguish when he returned with his fleet. Then a fisherman presented him a huge catch, and to everyone’s astonishment, the king’s signet ring was found in the belly of the fish, which Polycrates accepted as a good omen.5

The bilateral “Shakuntala” terracotta medallion is a portable funerary votive The bilateral “Shakuntala” terracotta medallion is a portable funerary votive related to the Greek oscillum marble discs. In Tillya Tepe burials the embossed gold plaques intended to be jewelry in some way were worn or suspended from clothing. The commemorative embossed plaques, coins, medals, and medallions are created by the

sculptor-jeweler-engraver. First, he creates a large model of the coin in malleable clay or plaster and makes die-cast in a mold. The coin may be struck by dies, one for each side of the coin. Striking with hammers impress the image of the dies upon the blank metal disc or planchet. The countless Indo-Greek coins created for religious reasons are primarily devotional offerings derived from the Greek Hero cult. As commemoratives, the limited editions created for sale to honor particular individuals are medallic art in their own right. [..]

Object Type: coin, Museum number: BNK,G.950[25]

(a) Telephus with a bandaged thigh on an altar (Detail), Athenian red-figure pelike, c. 450 BCE

London: British Museum (E 382)

(b) Telephus with bandaged thigh seated on Roman tomb, Sandstone, Bodh Gaya, 1st century CE  Cue to Hercules and Buddha, in Magical Maha Maya

Vetulonia, Εμπροσθότυπος: Male head wearing a Ketos headdress (sea monster skin)

Οπισθότυπος: Trident surrounded by two dolphins

Παραπομπή, Historia Nummorum Italy 203[25]

Τελετουργική άμαξα του Vetulonia[30]

ΣΗΜΕΙΩΣΕΙΣ

[1]. Επισκόπηση AI: Η φράση "Perpetual Limbo" (Περίοδος Πέραν του Τερματισμού) χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει μία κατάσταση όπου κάποιος ή κάτι βρίσκεται σε μια διαρκή αναμονή, σε ένα κενό, χωρίς καμία συγκεκριμένη εξέλιξη. Μπορεί να αναφέρεται σε μια πολιτική που εμποδίζει την οικογενειακή ένωση, ή σε μια κατάσταση όπου κάποιος βρίσκεται σε μια κατάσταση αστάθειας, χωρίς να μπορεί να προχωρήσει σε μια επόμενη φάση της ζωής του.

[2]. Επισκόπηση AI: A Purna-Kalash, also known as a Purna-Kumbha or Purna Ghata, is a sacred symbol in Hinduism, representing abundance, prosperity, and the source of life. It is a metal pot or vase, typically filled with water and adorned with auspicious elements like mango leaves and a coconut. The Purna-Kalash is revered in rituals and ceremonies, particularly weddings, births, and other auspicious occasions, symbolizing fertility, prosperity, and the presence of deities.

[3]. Επισκόπηση AI: Στην ινδική θεατρική παράδοση, ο όρος «Sutradhar» (Σουτράδαρ) αναφέρεται στον σκηνοθέτη ή τον υπεύθυνο για την οργάνωση της παράστασης. Στην έννοια της λέξης, ο Σουτράδαρ είναι αυτός που κρατάει τη «συρτή» (Sutra) ή το «νήμα» (Sutradhar) της παραστάσεως, δηλαδή την ευθύνη για την πορεία και το αποτέλεσμά της. Μπορεί επίσης να αναφέρεται σε μια κοινότητα ανθρώπων που ασχολούνται με την κατασκευή ή την επισκευή ξύλινων αντικειμένων. 

Επιπλέον, ο όρος «Sutradhar» μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί και σε μια μεταφορική έννοια, για να περιγράψει κάποιον που είναι υπεύθυνος για την οργάνωση και την εξέλιξη μιας δραστηριότητας ή μιας κατάστασης...

[4]. Επισκόπηση AI: In Latin, "oscillum" means a small face or mask, often hung up as an offering to deities. It's a diminutive of "os," meaning "face". The term also relates to the act of swinging, as the oscilla would be hung up and sway in the wind. This connection to swinging is reflected in the verb "oscillo" and the English word "oscillate".

[5]. https://www.nps.gov/articles/secret-symbol-of-the-lincoln-memorial.htm#:~:text=In%20ancient%20times%2C%20fasces%20were,held%20imperium%2C%20or%20executive%20authority.

[7]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasces

Στην Vetulonia (Vatl), μία των 12 πόλεων της Ετρουσκικής ομοσπονδίας, ευρέθη η ταφική στήλη του Auvele Feluske η οποία διαθέτει έντονα τα ίχνη της Ελληνικής επιρροής: Το θέμα του δορυφόρου πολεμιστού φέροντα λάβρυν που υιοθετεί είναι σύνηθες και διαδεδομένο στον Αιγαιακό χώρο, ενώ ο εικονιζόμενος είναι εφοδιασμένος με Κορινθιακό κράνος (Bartolucci Chiara, und). Το όνομα Feluske της ταφικής επιγραφής έχει ενδεχομένως συσχετισθεί με αυτό του Περσέως (Bartolucci Chiara, und; Μούρθος 2021, σελ. 267). To fasces (φάκελος) που ευρέθη στην Vetulonia θεωρείται το πρωτότυπο για τα από τους Ρωμαίους υιοθετηθέν! (Lachlan MacKendrick 1960, p. 36/269). Τα γενικά χαρακτηριστικά και η διάταξη του υπόγειου τάφου της Vetulonia είναι ανάλογα με έναν αριθμό μυκηναϊκών ταφικών μνημείων (Frothingham 1894).

[9]. https://thejatakatales.com/katthahari-jataka-7/

[10]. A bundle of rods bound together around an ax with the blade projecting.

Επισκόπηση AI: The described image is called fasces, a bundle of rods bound together around an axe, with the axe blade projecting. It was a symbol of authority and power in ancient Rome, where lictors would carry it in front of magistrates. 

Here's a more detailed explanation:

Fasces Definition:

The term "fasces" comes from the Latin word "fascis," meaning "bundle". It refers to a bundle of rods bound together, typically with a projecting axe. 

Symbol of Authority: In ancient Rome, the fasces represented the power of the magistrate or leader. 

Lictors and Fasces: Lictors were attendants who carried the fasces, symbolizing the authority of the magistrate. 

Variations: The axe could be present or absent depending on the magistrate's position and whether they held the power of life and death.

[12]. Επισκόπηση AI: The Fasces: Ancient Rome's Most Dangerous Political Symbol ...

The fasces, a symbol of rods bundled together and often including an axe, has a connection to ancient Greece, particularly through the double-headed axe known as the labrys. While the fasces is most famously associated with ancient Rome, its roots and symbolism are deeply intertwined with Greek culture, especially in areas like Crete. 

Άλλωστε κατά το TLG είναι:

TLG

φάκελος [ᾰ], ὁ, bundle, faggot, φρυγάνων, ῥάβδων, Hdt.4.62,67; ξύλων E.Cyc.242; δονάκων Opp.H.4.419 (σφακέλους codd.); ὕλης Th.2.77; οἱ φ. τῶν ῥάβδων, = Lat. fasces, D.C.53.1; also written φάκελλος Arist.Metaph.1016a1 (but φάκελος codd. EJ and Alex.Aphr. and so all codd. in 1042b17), Aen.Tact.33.1, D.H.7.11, J.AJ5.7.4 (v.l. φακέλους), Polyaen.7.6.9, but the form φάκελος is corroborated by Phld.Rh.1.74 S., Edict.Diocl.32.26, and required by the metre in E. and Opp. ll.cc.; distd. from σφάκελος by Ptol.Asc.p.406 H.; cf. κομποφακελορρήμων.

[15]. Offering of Kusa Grass by Sotthiya. Relief of votive stupa. Sikri, Pakistan. 2nd century CE. Central Archaeological Museum, Lahore, Pakistan Photo by John C. Huntington, Courtesy of the Huntington Photographic Archive of Buddhist and Asian Art <https://www.orientalistica.com/en/articles/2843/215361>

[20] Επισκόπηση AI: In his Histories, Book 3, chapters 41-42, Herodotus tells the story of Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, and his famous ring. Polycrates, advised by Amasis, king of Egypt, to avoid misfortune by throwing away something valuable, throws a prized emerald ring into the sea. A fisherman, impressed by Polycrates' power, catches a large fish and presents it to him as a gift. When Polycrates' servants cut up the fish, they find the ring inside. The story highlights the gods' ability to reverse fortunes and illustrates Herodotus' interest in exploring themes of hubris and the ephemeral nature of success.

[25]. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_BNK-G-950

[25]. https://greekcoinage.org/iris/results?q=mint_facet:%22Vetulonia%22

[30]. Επισκόπηση AI

The "Ritual Cart" from Vetulonia, a major Etruscan city, and its connection to Greek culture is a significant topic in ancient history. While the exact nature of the cart's purpose and the extent of Greek influence are debated, it's clear that it represents a complex interplay between Etruscan and Greek practices.

What is the Ritual Cart?

The "Ritual Cart" from Vetulonia refers to a terracotta artifact, specifically a model cart or chariot, found in an Etruscan tomb. This model depicts a vehicle, likely used in religious or funerary rituals, and is adorned with scenes of people, animals, and possibly gods.

Greek Influence:

Etruscan culture, while distinct, was deeply influenced by Greek culture, particularly in artistic, religious, and funerary practices. The Ritual Cart, with its depictions of Greek deities and scenes, is a testament to this influence. 

Deities:

The figures depicted on the cart may represent Greek deities, indicating the adoption of Greek mythology within Etruscan religious beliefs.

Funerary Rituals:

The cart's placement in a tomb suggests its use in funerary rituals, which are also influenced by Greek practices. Processions, laments, and the laying out of the deceased (prothesis) were common features of both Etruscan and Greek burial rites.

Artistic Style:

The artistic style of the Ritual Cart, with its depictions of humans and animals, is also influenced by Greek art.

Key Features and Interpretations:

Function:

The cart's purpose is debated, but it is generally believed to be related to religious or funerary rituals, possibly representing a procession or journey into the afterlife.

Scenes Depicted:

The scenes depicted on the cart may include mythological figures, sacrifices, or other religious events.

Greek Influence:

The presence of Greek deities and the overall artistic style suggest a strong Greek influence on Etruscan art and beliefs. 

In Conclusion:

The Ritual Cart from Vetulonia is a fascinating artifact that sheds light on the complex relationship between Etruscan and Greek cultures. It demonstrates the adoption of Greek artistic styles, religious beliefs, and funerary practices by the Etruscans, highlighting the vibrant cultural exchange that occurred in ancient Italy.

ΒΙΒΛΙΟΓΡΑΦΙΑ

https://www.academia.edu/45483233/Magical_Maha_Maya_Epic_Dimensions_in_Buddhist_Art

https://www.academia.edu/42296102/Cue_to_Hercules_and_Buddha_in_Magical_Maha_Maya_Epic_Dimensions_in_Buddhist_Art

Sengupta, A. R. 2021. "Cue to Hercules and Buddha," in Magical Maha Maya - Epic Dimensions in Buddhist Art, Agam Kala Prakshan, New Delhi.

https://antigonejournal.com/2023/07/roman-fasces/

T. Corey Brennan. 2023. "The Fasces: Ancient Rome’s Most Dangerous Political Symbol," in Antigone Journal, <https://antigonejournal.com/2023/07/roman-fasces/> (6 June 2025).

https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-6765?p=emailAaHN7geZOcpCg&d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-6765

Ridgway, D. W. R. 2016. Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Vetulonia 

https://dokumen.pub/qdownload/the-mute-stones-speak-the-story-of-archaeology-in-italy-0393301192-9780393301199.html

Lachlan MacKendrick, P. 1960. The Mute Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Italy, New York.

https://pergamos.lib.uoa.gr/uoa/dl/object/2941048/file.pdf

Μούρθος, Ιω. 2021. "Κοινωνική μνήμη και ταυτότητα στην αρχαία Ελληνική πόλη: Οι περιπτώσεις της Θάσου, της Σαμοθράκης και της Λήμνου από την άφιξη των Ελλήνων μέχρι την ύστερη αρχαιότητα" (διδ. ΕΚΠΑ).

https://www.academia.edu/37143780/Stele_Auvele_Feluske_docx

Bartolucci Chiara. (und). "Stele di Aule Feluske o stele del guerriero di Vetulonia," <https://www.academia.edu/37143780/Stele_Auvele_Feluske_docx> (7 June 2025).

https://www.jstor.org/stable/496458

A. L. Frothingham, Jr. 1894. "A Primitive Dome with Pendentives at Vetulonia," The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts 9 (2), pp. 213-216.

https://academic.oup.com/book/12242/chapter-abstract/161720972?redirectedFrom=fulltext
Wendy Doniger. 2017. "Shakuntala and the Ring of Memory," in The Ring of Truth: And Other Myths of Sex and Jewelry, Oxford University Press.
.. Abstract

The jewelry of princess Sita plays a key role in the ancient Indian epic, the Ramayana, and in a play about an Indian king who falls in love with a mystery woman identified only by her necklace. A ring is found in a fish in the tale of Shakuntala, a simple forest girl seduced by a king who pretends to forget her when she appears at court, pregnant with his child. When a court poet retold the story, he saved the king’s reputation by adding a ring with a curse on it, which erased the king’s memory of Shakuntala—until the ring was found in a fish served at the royal table. When we combine these stories with those of Solomon and Polycrates, we can excavate a broader mythology of rings found in fish, a mythology that expresses the hope that we can retrieve a lost past.

..

Kalidasa may also have known the story of Polycrates's ring (Romila Thapar, Sakuntala, 56), type A of the ring-in-fish story, though he uses type B (the Solomon ..

..

https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%AE%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%82

Wikipedia, s.v. Τήλεφος

https://historum.com/t/kausambi-palace-an-obscure-major-discovery-from-1962-for-indian-architecture.177981/

Kausambi Palace, an obscure major discovery from 1962 for Indian architecture

https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC

.. Η Χαρίκλεια, κόρη του βασιλιά Υδάσπη και της βασίλισσας Περσίνας της Αιθιοπίας, γεννήθηκε λευκή καθώς η βασίλισσα κατά τη διάρκεια της εγκυμοσύνης εντυπωσιάστηκε από ένα μαρμάρινο άγαλμα (ένα παράδειγμα της θεωρίας της μητρικής εντύπωσης ). Φοβούμενη τις κατηγορίες για μοιχεία, η Περσίνα εγκαταλείπει την κόρη της αλλά της αφήνει τρία δώρα: μια ενεπίγραφη κορδέλα, ένα περιδέραιο και ένα δαχτυλίδι με υπερφυσικές και μυστικιστικές ιδιότητες. Το μωρό παραδόθηκε στη φροντίδα ενός ιερέα που αργότερα το έδωσε στον Χαρικλή, έναν ιερέα του μαντείου των Δελφών, μεταφέρθηκε στους Δελφούς όπου μεγάλωσε με το όνομα Χαρίκλεια και στην εφηβεία της έγινε ιέρεια της Άρτεμης.[4]

ΠΟΛΥΚΡΑΤΗΣ - BAMIYAN

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.15827.95522