The Greek-related state of Xiutu and the Xianbei aristocracy*

 

The Hellenic-affiliated Kingdom of Xiutu and the Aristocracy of the Xianbei

D. N. Konidaris, konidaris@ieee.org, ch. 5.2.3 of the book CHINESE CIVILISATION AND ITS AEGEAN AFFINITIES

Abstract

 

This study examines the enigmatic Kingdom of Xiutu in the Gansu Corridor and explores its possible Hellenistic affiliations, focusing on the reign of King Xiutu and his legacy within early Han China and the Xianbei aristocracy. Drawing on Chinese historical sources, archaeological evidence, and recent scholarship, it reassesses the traditional identification of Xiutu as a Xiongnu ruler and advances the argument that the kingdom may instead represent a Greco-Bactrian or Greco-Saka polity established in northwestern China during the late second century BCE. Particular attention is given to the famous golden statue captured by General Huo Qubing, whose iconography and later depictions suggest Hellenistic religious and artistic influences. The study further analyzes the hypothesis that the name Xiutu corresponds to the Hellenistic royal title Soter, and traces the transmission of this legacy through Jin Midi and the influential Ban family, whose members played a central role in Han historiography, politics, and intellectual life. Finally, the article considers the possible genealogical and cultural connections between Xiutu and segments of the Xianbei military aristocracy, as well as the broader implications for understanding Sino-Western cultural exchange, the diffusion of Hellenistic art forms, and the early transmission of religious and philosophical ideas along the Silk Road.

 

 

 

 

 

According to the historical Book of Han (Han Shu), the kings of the Xiutu and Hunye kingdoms, who led "barbarian" Hu tribes and acted as allies of the Xiongnu,^5_61 controlled territories along the Gansu Corridor, thus hindering communication through this part of the Silk Road.^5_62 However, in 121 BCE, Emperor Wudi (漢武帝, 157–87 BCE) of the Han dynasty sent General Huo Qubing, who subjugated the two kingdoms and opened the vital commercial route. Consequently, the defeated kings, at the head of tens of thousands of their followers and fearing the wrath of the Xiongnu leader, were forced to surrender to the Han,^5_63 leading to the establishment of five vassal states under Han authority.^5_64 The victory of the Chinese general was resounding—eight thousand Hu were captured, and as spoils of war was taken the famous golden statue that Xiutu used in worship of Heaven.^5_65

It is worth noting, incidentally, that the tomb of general Huo Qubing is adorned with a stone statue of a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior—a sculptural innovation considered a Western influence in China. The famed golden statue of Xiutu is depicted in an 8th-century mural at the Mogao Caves, where Emperor Wu is also shown worshipping two Buddhist statues.

Fig. 3_12: Monumental sculpture from the mausoleum of Huo Qubing with evident Hellenistic aura

In the second part of his study “Dionysian Rituals and the Golden Zeus of China,” Christopoulos examines the celebrated golden statue of King Xiutu from Gansu,^5_67 aiming to determine its true historical context.^5_68 The discovery of the depiction of Xiutu’s statue in a Dunhuang Mogao Cave mural sheds light on this question—it reveals the unsuspected presence, during the time of Emperor Han Wudi, of Greco-Bactrians and their allies, the Saka and Sogdians, in Gansu. Connecting these events with the twelve gold-and-ivory statues that Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi had seized about a century earlier in the same region, we find that a Greco-Saka (or Greco-Bactrian) kingdom—composed of fortified cities—had its seat in central Gansu and was the first kingdom founded by Euthydemus I of Bactria. The implications of this discovery extend further, as it also suggests an alliance between the aforementioned first Emperor of Qin and the Greco-Saka kingdom of Gansu.

In his analysis, Christopoulos argues that the name Xiutu may be the Chinese equivalent of the Hellenistic royal title Soter (Σωτήρ),^5_69 and he emphasizes the likelihood that this king was not ethnically Xiongnu.^5_70 Jin Midi, the son of Xiutu, similarly ended up in Han China, but through his loyalty and service, he became one of Emperor Wu’s closest aides and was posthumously honored with the title Marquis of Reverence (Jinghou).^5_71 His devotion to duty and respectful demeanor were fully recognized by Emperor Wu, who appointed him as a regent to rule on behalf of his son, Liu Fuling,^5_71a1 as recorded by the renowned historian Ban Gu, who may have belonged to the same Xiutu lineage. This prominent figure appears in the mural paintings of the Eastern Han tomb in Helinge’er in modern-day Inner Mongolia,^5_71a2 as well as in the Wu Liang Shrine in Shandong, ^5_71a3 within a context that also reflects multiple Greek influences. Indeed, Jeremy Tanner has examined the artistic representations of historical events in both the Stoa Poikile (Στοά Ποικίλη) in Athens and the Wu Liang Shrine in present-day Shandong Province, identifying notable parallels in their visual storytelling, ^5_71a4  alongside other compelling similarities.^5_71a5

Ιστορία του Jin Midi, ιερό του Wu Liang ^5_71a6

Η καταγωγή των συγγραφέων του Han-shu από τους Xiongnu^5_71a7

 

Jin Midi, along with his younger brother Lun, founded a political faction that maintained an influential role for generations.^5_72 Prominent members of the Jin and Ban families later produced major political figures as well as notable artists and historians.^5_73

An interesting theory that could explain certain Hellenistic customs and artistic associations noted among the Murong Xianbei comes from the work of Yao Weiyuan (姚薇元, 1905–1985),^5_74 who argued that King Xiutu was an ancestor of some members of the Xianbei military aristocracy. Sanping Chen likewise notes that Chen Yuan, an expert on the origins of Lu Fayan (author of the monumental rhyming dictionary Qieyun),^5_75 found this “barbarian” Xianbei lineage of Lu Fayan quite surprising.

Related to the aforementioned Hellenistic artistic associations of the Xianbei is a golden belt kept in the Qinghai Museum. The museum dates the belt to the Tang dynasty, but Christopoulos observes that:^5_76

“There is also a silver-gilt Hellenistic belt with Greek mythological figures, originally inlaid with gemstones, found in Qinghai Dulan (都蘭) and said to be from the Kushano-Sassanian period (Figure 30). Displayed at the Qinghai Museum, the depiction of the divinities as the prophetic Thriae (Θριαί) bee-nymphs and Dionysos makes it perhaps earlier than the third century AD, and a Thriae wearing a Greco-Bactrian helmet demonstrates clearly its origins. Why

would the Sassanians, in that representation, have used the helmet of a Greco-Bactrian king instead of a helmet closer in style to their own cultural references? Dulan is in the area where the Murong Xianbei ruled; it is also possible that the belt was made right there, in the Greco-Saka kingdom of Gansu, not in Bactria.”

 

He further adds in the footnote to Image 30:

Figure 30. (a) Hellenistic silver-gilt belt of 90 cm, Qinghai Museum. Two figures of Dionysos seem to be guarding a door, with the thyrsos in the middle. (b) Two winged half-bee Thriae nymphs hold a wreath (c, d). One of the two is clearly wearing a GrecoBactrian helmet (c). The king and queen are seated and holding a wreath, symbol of wealth, power, glory, and eternity. They seem to hold on their knees the same belt with round sections (e). All the figures have one hand on the stomach and the other holding a wreath (c, d).

Fig. 5_5: Gilded Silver Belt with Greek Gods in Emblems

Fig. 5_6: Emblem with a nymph from the belt (left) & Gold plaques with engraving of winged bee-women, probably of the Thriae (right)

Summary on Xiutu:

This enigmatic and significant historical figure in Chinese history was likely of Greek origin. He had a son named Midi (Rindi), who would later be called “Golden Midi” by Emperor Wudi of the Han dynasty (157–87 BCE). According to the Hanshu—the official dynastic history of the early Han—the king Xiutu had his capital in what later became one of the Han’s “Ten Prefectures of Wuwei” and is described by most historians as a Xiongnu king.^5_77

Jin Midi was born in 134 BCE into a royal family allied with the Xiongnu and was probably of Greco-Bactrian descent, ruling the central Gansu region. He was the heir of King Xiutu (Soter/Σωτήρ), one of the most important kings serving under Gunchen Chanyu, supreme leader of the Xiongnu. After Gunchen’s death in 126 BCE, his brother Yizhixie succeeded him. During this time, King Xiutu and another great ruler, King Hunxie, defended the southwestern borders of the Xiongnu against the Han dynasty—in what is now central and western Gansu.

This same person, Jin Midi, together with Xiutu, became the progenitor of the famous Ban family.^5_78

According to Sinologist Sanping Chen, this family produced not only Ban Biao (3–54 CE), Ban Gu (32–92 CE), and Ban Zhao (ca. 49–ca. 120 CE)—the father, son, and daughter trio who authored the first dynastic history of China, Hanshou—but also the courageous and capable diplomat-general Ban Chao (33–103 CE). Ban Chao, reportedly with a force of only 36 fellow adventurers, reestablished Han dominance over Central Asia (then known as the Western Regions) after the collapse under the tragic usurper Wang Mang (45 BCE–23 CE). His achievements were later continued by his son Ban Yong, who was born in Central Asia.

The historiography written by the Ban family had a profound influence on restoring Confucian thought, which was strongly virtue-oriented and pro-agrarian. If historian Hill’s interpretation is correct, their compassionate reading of history became the common intellectual mindset of later generations.

Fig. 5_7: 8th century mural in the Mogao Caves depicting Emperor Wu (worshipping two Buddhist statues) & the golden statue of Xiutu

Fig. 5_8: Was the pioneering astronomer, historian, philosopher, writer and musician Ban Zhao of partial Greek descent?

 

The intriguing theory proposed by Yao Weiyuan — that King Xiutu was of Greek origin and ancestor of certain members of the Xianbei military aristocracy — helps explain some of the Hellenistic customs and artistic references found among the Murong Xianbei.^5_79 Members of this “ethnic” group held powerful positions in Chinese aristocracy for many generations, and by the 4th–5th centuries CE, they even governed the country.^5_80

In this sense, the Greek contribution to Chinese intellectual history can be understood as having an additional channel of cultural communication, fostering artistic and philosophical exchange. Furthermore, the introduction of Buddhism into ancient China was another significant conduit for the diffusion of Greco-Indian Gandharan artistic traits, as well as related religious and philosophical ideas.

The Xiongnu chanyu's consort (Princess Nangong) and Jin Midi (The Great Han Emperor Wu) in Korean film^5_80a

 

NOTES

 

5_61. Christopoulos 2022, p. 70. See also Qiang 羌 References in the Book of Han 汉书 Part 1 & 2 (transl. by Rachel Meakin).

5_62. Meakin (part 1), n. 74.

5_63. Meakin (part 1), p. 17; Christopoulos 2022, p. 70. Επί του θέματος αναφέρονται περισσότερες εκδοχές: Zhongxiao Wang 2015, p. 113; Byung Ho Lee 2011, p. 143, nn. 26-28; Wontack Hong 2012, p. 233; Miller 2009, p. 114.

5_64. Zhongxiao Wang 2015, p. 113; Miller 2009, p. 114, n. 4; Di Cosmo 2009, p. 204.

5_65. Miller 2009, p. 114, n. 38.

5_66. Duan Qingbo 2023, fig. 9.

5_67. However, it has been argued, curiously and vaguely (Whitfield 2012, p. 189, nn. 33-35) that the term Putu (Podo: 蒲圖) was one of the many terms - ways of translating the term Buddha in classical Chinese. Although the term Fotuo (Bulta: 佛陀) was most often used, there were also other terms such as Futu (Budo: 浮屠), Fotu (Buldo: 佛圖), Putu (Podo 蒲圖) and Xiutu (Hyudo: 休屠).

Reference to the Gold Man is also made in: Dubs 1937, n. 19.

5_68. Christopoulos 2022, p. 1.

5_69. Christopoulos 2022, p. 70.

5_70. Xumeng Sun 2020, p. 61; Lan-Ying Tseng 2008.  According to Christopoulos (Christopoulos 2022, p. 69) The “Records of the Grand Historian, Collected Annotations” (Shiji Jijie 史記集解), translated by James R. Ware, is, however, very clear on the likelihood that King Xiutu was not a Xiongnu from Mongolia. Jin Midi was described as “eight chi two cun tall with a stern appearance.”

5_71. Byung Ho Lee 2011, p. 143, nn. 26-28; Miller 2009, p. 114, n. 39.

5_71a1. Loewe 2000, p. 2959; Pan Yue 2026, p. 521; Ban Gu 1974, p. 157.

5_71a2. Xumeng Sun 2020, p. 61. Όμως η πληροφορία δεν επιβεβαιώνεται από άλλη πηγή, βλ. Knapp 2005, p. 53.

5_71a3. Kuroda and Knapp 2010, p. 138; Liu 2008; Wu 1989: The funerary shrine of the Confucian scholar Wu Liang, created in AD 151, is the most important surviving pre-Buddhist monument in China. That is to say, it is the most important single work of visual art from the centuries that set the patterns of Chinese thought for almost two millennia. The importance of the shrine lies in the beauty of the stone reliefs on its walls and, especially, in the remarkably comprehensive iconography of its nearly one hundred scenes. They constitute, in effect, a coherent symbolic structure of the universe as the Han Chinese conceived it. This structure consists of three sections: the ceiling carvings present the Mandate of Heaven; the scenes on the two gables depict the paradise of the immortals; and the 44 stories related on the walls illustrate the history of mankind, starting with the creators of human culture and ending with a portrait of Wu Liang, who designed his own memorial. The author finds the shrine comparable, in the comprehensiveness and cultural significance of its iconography, to the cathedral at Chartres or the Sistine Chapel. The many writings that have discussed the shrine over the centuries constitute a history of the approaches Eastern and Western scholars have taken to Chinese art. The first part of this book sets out these contributions and approaches as it recounts the history of the preservation and reconstruction of the shrine. The second part analyzes the cosmological significance of the shrine, exploring the internal relationships between the reliefs, and in the process translating for the first time into English all the literary inscriptions that accompany the carvings.

5_71a4. Beecroft 2021, p. 97.

5_71a5. Wu 1989. While the Wu Liang Shrine is deeply rooted in Chinese Han culture, scholars have explored potential "Hellenistic connections" or influences resulting from early Silk Road interactions.

Artistic Evolution: The shrine's reliefs represent an "archaic revival" of earlier Western Han styles, yet scholars have noted that the treatment of figures and narratives might reflect a distant awareness of foreign artistic traditions.

Narrative Style and Space: Similarities in pictorial art, such as the use of registers (rows) for storytelling and the rendering of three-dimensional space, have prompted comparison to Hellenistic Greek art, which similarly aimed to translate history into visual narratives.

Technique: While the technique is distinctly Chinese (low-relief rubbing), the thematic focus on portraying historical "scenes" in a structured, almost panoramic manner, has been compared with similar artistic developments in the Greek world, suggesting a potential (though indirect) cultural exchange.

Motifs: Some argue for indirect influence through Central Asian intermediaries (such as Sogdians or Iranian cultures), which could have facilitated the transmission of Hellenistic-inspired themes—like specialized animal husbandry or specific art motifs—into China by the Eastern Han.

 

Artistic Motifs: Similar to the Guyuan Sarcophagus, tomb art in the region of Helinge’er tomb sometimes incorporated foreign elements like vine scrolls, mythical creatures, or foreign artistic techniques. The presence of non-local items in tombs suggests that Central Asian trade networks were bringing items with Mediterranean or Near-Eastern motifs into Chinese elite culture. In Summary: The Helinge’er tomb serves as a crucial piece of evidence for studying the cultural exchange between Han China and the steppe, showing how, by the 2nd century CE, Hellenistic-inspired art and motifs had become part of the artistic repertoire found in North China and the Eurasian steppe.

5_71a6. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Story_of_Jin_Midi.JPG The story of Jin Midi. Wu Liang Shrine, Jiaxiang, Shandong. 2nd century AD. Ink rubbings derived from stone-carved reliefs as represented in Feng Yunpeng and Feng Yunyuan, Jinshi suo (1824 edition).

5_71a7. Sanping Chen 2011, p. 36.

5_72. Sanping Chen 2011, p. 35, n. 5.

5_73. Sanping Chen 2011. Briefly, we mention: Ban Biao, Ban Gu and Ban Zhao, a trio of father, son and daughter, who co-wrote the historiography Han-shu. The daughter of the first is Ban Zhao, a mathematician, astronomer, writer and teacher of aristocrats, etc.

5_74. Christopoulos 2022, pp. 74-75, nn. 100-102. See the book by: Yao Weiyuan 2013.

5_75. Sanping Chen. 2011, p. 36.

5_76. Christopoulos 2022, p. 99, fig. 30.

5_77. Christopoulos 2022.

5_78. Sanping Chen 2011, p. 33. The excerpt is as follows:

Readers of China's early imperial history cannot help being impressed by the exceptional talents in the Ban family of the Later Han dynasty, known also as the Eastern Han (25-220). The family produced not only Ban Biao at (3-54 CE), Ban GuAl (32-92 CE) and Ban Zhao PIS' (ca. 49- ca.120 CE), the father-son-daughter trio that authored China's first ever dynastic history Han-shu, but also the extraordinarily daring and capable diplomat-general Ban Chao (33-103), who singlehandedly (reportedly with a force of only 36 fellow adventurers) re-established the Han domination in Central Asia (known at the time as the Western Regions) after the debacle under the tragicomic pretender Wang Mang (45 BC-23 AD). Chao's exploit was further carried on by his Central Asia-born son Ban Yong. Ban Biao's daughter Ban Zhao, a strong mathematician and astronomer in completing Han-shu, was a respected tutor of princesses and imperial consorts and was later reverentially known as Cao Dagu ("Grand Dame Cao," after her husband's family name). She also happened to be one of the earliest known female authors in Chinese history, responsible for such classics like Nüjie (Lessons for Women). According to Hou Han-shu (84.2785)1, she even played an important political role during the regency of Empress Dowager Deng. 

5_79. Christopoulos 2022, pp. 74-75.

5_80. Sanping Chen 1996.

5_80a. Eng 2011, fig. 10.

 

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