The Wu Liang Shrine : the ideology of early Chinese pictorial art

https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/pdf/10.3366/ccs.2021.0389

Beecroft, A. 2021. Rev. of G.E.R. Lloyd and Jingyi Jenny Zhao, Ancient Greece and China Compared, in Comparative Critical Studies 18.1, pp. 95–121.

p. 97: Jeremy Tanner’s essay on ‘Visual Art and Historical Representation in Ancient Greece and China’ {https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1505848/1/Tanner_visual_art_and_historical_representation_in_ancient_greece_and_china.pdf} similarly derives an intriguing argument from a methodological innovation. Tanner examines artistic representations of historical events in the Stoa Poikile in Athens and in the Wu Liang Shrine, in what is today Shandong province

Wu Liang Shrine and Greek connection

Επισκόπηση AI

The Wu Liang Shrine (武梁祠, c. 151 AD) in Jiaxiang County, Shandong Province, is one of the most important surviving pre-Buddhist monuments in China, featuring stone reliefs that depict Chinese mythology and history. While the shrine is fundamentally Confucian, art historical analysis has identified potential indirect connections to Greek-influenced art (Hellenism) through trade routes and the broader cultural exchanges of the era. 

Key Connections and Comparisons:

Architectural Influence: Research suggests that spiral-fluted columns {σπειροειδείς αυλακωτοί κίονες}, which appear in Han dynasty tombs, may have been influenced by Mesopotamian and Greco-Roman architecture, reaching China via the Maritime Silk Road.

Iconography & Motifs: Some scholars point to similarities between the depiction of "flying celestial figures" (Feitian) in later Buddhist art and Greek Nike figures. Additionally, the use of clay sculpture techniques found in the Tarim Basin has been linked to Greco-Bactrian artisans, indicating a flow of Hellenistic artistic knowledge into China.

Methodological Comparison: Art historians, such as Jeremy Tanner, have compared the visual storytelling of the Wu Liang Shrine with the Stoa Poikile in Athens. Both are considered instances of "history painting" that established critical, reflective distance from the past, even though they emerged from different cultural contexts.

Cosmological Parallels: Some studies have compared the Chinese mythical figures Fuxi and Nüwa (who appear in the shrine with compass and set-square) to Greco-Roman and Near Eastern archetypes, though their roles are deeply rooted in Chinese, not Greek, mythology. 

Contextual Factors:

Indirect Influence: The connections are generally considered indirect, transmitted through intermediate cultures in Central Asia (such as the Gandhara or Kushan regions) rather than direct, firsthand contact.

Cultural Distinctiveness: Despite these potential influences, the Wu Liang Shrine is a deeply Confucian monument, structured around Han dynasty social hierarchies and ideologies, including the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). 

In summary, while there is no evidence of direct Greek authorship, the Wu Liang Shrine displays, in its artistic techniques and motifs, the faint, hybridized influence of Hellenistic art that traveled along the Silk Road. 

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258438528_Are_the_Wu_Liang_Shrine_Pictorial_Stones_Forgeries_Examining_the_Han_Era_Evidence

https://www11.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/storage/w2_file/1381pXFmNiK.pdf

Akira Kuroda, K. N. Knapp. 2010. "Are the Wu Liang Shrine Pictorial Stones Forgeries? Examining the Han Era Evidence," Asia Major 23(2), pp. 129-151. Jin Midi

p. 138

For example, the story of Jin Midi has not been transmitted as a fragment from an Accounts of Filial Children {Αφηγήσεις αφοσιωμένων & σεβαστικών παιδιών} in either China or Japan, nor has a pictorial depiction survived.28 Consequently, in late-imperial China there was never any indication that this image was one of the illustrations of the Accounts of Filial Children. That is to say, it is not even possible that the story of Jin Mindi was forged as an image of the Wu Liang shrine’s Accounts of Filial Children. By comparing this Wu Liang shrine image with the one found in the Helinge’er tomb, we can confirm that, from the start, it is a portrayal of a narrative from a Han Account of Filial Children. The image of the filial crow falls into the same category. Likewise, we can confirm that the Accounts of Filial Children text of this story ended up being scattered and lost.

Για παράδειγμα, η ιστορία του Jin Midi δεν έχει μεταδοθεί ως απόσπασμα από τις Αφηγήσεις αφοσιωμένων & σεβαστικών παιδιών στην Κίνα ή την Ιαπωνία, ούτε έχει διασωθεί κάποια εικονογραφημένη σχετική απεικόνιση.28 Κατά συνέπεια, στην ύστερη αυτοκρατορική Κίνα δεν υπήρξε ποτέ καμία ένδειξη ότι αυτή η εικόνα ήταν μία από τις εικονογραφήσεις των Αφηγήσεων αφοσιωμένων παιδιών. Δηλαδή, δεν είναι καν πιθανό η ιστορία του Jin Mindi να πλαστογραφήθηκε ως εικόνα των Αφηγήσεων αφοσιωμένων παιδιών του ιερού Wu Liang. Συγκρίνοντας αυτήν την εικόνα του ιερού Wu Liang με αυτήν που βρέθηκε στον τάφο Helinge'er, μπορούμε να επιβεβαιώσουμε ότι, εξαρχής, είναι μια απεικόνιση μιας αφηγήσεως από τις Αφηγήσεις αφοσιωμένων παιδιών των Han. Η εικόνα του κορακιού εμπίπτει στην ίδια κατηγορία. Ομοίως, μπορούμε να επιβεβαιώσουμε ότι το κείμενο αυτής της ιστορίας με τίτλο Αφηγήσεις αφοσιωμένων παιδιών κατέληξε να είναι διάσπαρτο και χαμένο.

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Wu Liang shrine and Hellenistic connection

Επισκόπηση AI

The Wu Liang Shrine (Wuliangci), created in AD 151 in Jiaxiang, Shandong province, is the most significant surviving pre-Buddhist stone relief monument from China's Eastern Han Dynasty. It acts as a comprehensive "symbolic structure of the universe" according to Han ideology, depicting mythology, history, and Confucian virtues. 

University of Chicago (Art History)

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The Hellenistic Connection

While the Wu Liang Shrine is deeply rooted in Chinese Han culture, scholars have explored potential "Hellenistic connections" or influences resulting from early Silk Road interactions. 

Artistic Evolution: The shrine's reliefs represent an "archaic revival" of earlier Western Han styles, yet scholars have noted that the treatment of figures and narratives might reflect a distant awareness of foreign artistic traditions.

Narrative Style and Space: Similarities in pictorial art, such as the use of registers (rows) for storytelling and the rendering of three-dimensional space, have prompted comparison to Hellenistic Greek art, which similarly aimed to translate history into visual narratives.

Technique: While the technique is distinctly Chinese (low-relief rubbing), the thematic focus on portraying historical "scenes" in a structured, almost panoramic manner, has been compared with similar artistic developments in the Greek world, suggesting a potential (though indirect) cultural exchange.

Motifs: Some argue for indirect influence through Central Asian intermediaries (such as Sogdians or Iranian cultures), which could have facilitated the transmission of Hellenistic-inspired themes—like specialized animal husbandry or specific art motifs—into China by the Eastern Han. 

ProQuest

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Core Characteristics of the Wu Liang Shrine

Iconography: The shrine includes nearly 100 scenes across its walls, illustrating creators (Fuxi and Nuwa), historical figures, and scenes of filial piety.

Ideology: It was designed by the Confucian scholar Wu Liang (78–151 AD) to instruct his family in virtues like loyalty, filial piety, and righteousness.

Technique: The carvings are "low-relief" designed to be reproduced by making ink rubbings, which were then used for study or display.

Structure: The shrine typically features three main walls covered in carved scenes arranged in rows, often detailing the Mandate of Heaven on the ceiling and earthly history on the walls. 

Seattle Art Museum

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The shrine's imagery is deeply tied to the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) and was heavily scrutinized by scholars like Wu Hung, who highlighted the shrine as an "ideology of one," representing the deceased's specific view of the world. 

Cambridge University Press & Assessment

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Ο τάφος Helinge’er (Horinger) βρίσκεται στην κομητεία Helinge’er, η οποία υπάγεται στην πόλη Hohhot, στην Αυτόνομη Περιοχή της Εσωτερικής Μογγολίας (Inner Mongolia) της Κίνας. Είναι ένας από τους πιο σημαντικούς αρχαιολογικούς χώρους της Ανατολικής Δυναστείας των Χαν (Eastern Han Dynasty) που έχουν ανακαλυφθεί στην περιοχή. Ακολουθούν τα βασικά στοιχεία για τον τάφο: Τοιχογραφίες (Helinge'er Han Tomb Murals): Ο τάφος είναι διάσημος για τις εκτεταμένες τοιχογραφίες του, οι οποίες παρέχουν σημαντικές πληροφορίες για την κουλτούρα, την καθημερινή ζωή, τις ενδυμασίες και την ιεραρχία της δυναστείας των Χαν, καθώς και για τις αλληλεπιδράσεις με γειτονικούς νομαδικούς πληθυσμούς.

Περιεχόμενο: Στις τοιχογραφίες απεικονίζονται σκηνές από τη ζωή του αποθανόντος, συμπεριλαμβανομένων πομπών, κτιρίων, καθώς και απεικονίσεις της πόλης Ningcheng, όπου "βάρβαροι" (όπως ονομάζονταν τότε) υποτάσσονται στον αποθανόντα.

Σημαντικά Ευρήματα: Το 1971, ανασκάφηκε ένας τάφος της Ανατολικής δυναστείας των Han στο Helinge'er, όπου βρέθηκαν σημαντικά αντικείμενα, συμπεριλαμβανομένου ενός χάλκινου σκεύους (three-footed bronze xian), το οποίο φυλάσσεται στο Μουσείο της Εσωτερικής Μογγολίας.

Τοποθεσία: Η περιοχή αυτή είναι πλούσια σε αρχαιολογικά ευρήματα, αν και στο παρελθόν υπήρξαν αναφορές για καταστροφή αρχαίων τάφων (άνω των 2.000 ετών) λόγω οικιστικής αναπτύξεως. Ο τάφος αυτός θεωρείται "πολυθάλαμος τοιχογραφημένος τάφος" (multi-chambered mural tomb) και αποτελεί σημείο αναφοράς για τη μελέτη της ιστορίας της Εσωτερικής Μογγολίας.

https://www.academia.edu/42980037/_Does_a_Feather_in_Your_Hat_a_Barbarian_Make_Headgear_and_Hairstyles_in_Han_Dynasty_Tomb_Murals_in_the_Ordos_In_The_Art_and_Archaeology_of_Bodily_Adornment_Studies_from_Central_and_East_Asian_Mortuary_Contexts_edited_by_Sheri_Lullo_and_Leslie_V_Wallace_Routledge_2019_

Wallace, L. W. 2019. "Does a feather in your hat a barbarian make? Headgear and hairstyles in Han dynasty tomb murals in the Ordos," in The Art and Archaeology of Bodily Adornment: Studies from Central and East Asian Mortuary Contexts, ed. S. Lullo and L. V. Wallace, Routledge, pp. 161-175.

https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0044.008/--claims-of-buddhist-relics-in-the-eastern-han-tomb-murals-at?rgn=main;view=fulltext

https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx/claims-of-buddhist-relics-in-the-eastern-han-tomb-murals-at.pdf?c=ars;idno=13441566.0044.008;format=pdf

Minku Kim. 2014. "Claims of Buddhist Relics in the Eastern Han Tomb Murals at Horinger: Issues in the Historiography of the Introduction of Buddhism to China," Ars Orientalis 44, pp. 134-155.

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Helinge’er tomb and Hellenistic connection

Επισκόπηση AI               

The Helinge’er tomb (also spelled Horinger) is an important Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE) tomb located in Inner Mongolia, China. While the tomb itself is primarily characterized as a Han cultural site, scholarly discussions frequently connect its murals and artifacts to the broader, indirect influences of Eurasian trade, which included Hellenistic motifs that spread eastward through Central Asia, particularly via Bactria and Gandhāra.

Helinge’er Tomb Features and Hellenistic/Eurasian Connections

Murals and Symbolism: The tomb contains a significant number of murals (over 50, and dozens of inscriptions) that depict scenes of everyday life, official travels, and architectural structures. Some scholars have looked for early Buddhist symbols within these murals, which would indirectly connect the tomb to the Hellenistic-influenced Buddhist art (Gandhāran art) of that era, although identifying specific "relics" remains controversial.

Silk Road Trade Links: The wealth and style depicted in the tomb show that the local Han elites were connected to the Silk Road trade, which was the channel for Hellenistic art and motifs to reach China. These motifs include artistic elements found across Central Eurasia during this period, such as specific artistic motifs, attire, or luxury items.

Cultural Fusion: The mural tomb represents a blend of Han Chinese artistic traditions with nomadic and Central Asian influences, indicative of the hybrid cultural landscape of the northern borderlands during the 2nd century CE.

Broader Context of Hellenistic Influence

The "Hellenistic connection" in this context is rarely a direct Greek presence, but rather a "Hellenized" art style (often called Greco-Buddhist or Indo-Greek art) that was popular in areas such as Bactria, and was later adopted by nomadic and regional cultures as it spread eastward. These influences include:

Artistic Motifs: Similar to the Guyuan Sarcophagus, tomb art in the region sometimes incorporated foreign elements like vine scrolls, mythical creatures, or foreign artistic techniques.

Luxury Items: The presence of non-local items in tombs suggests that Central Asian trade networks were bringing items with Mediterranean or Near-Eastern motifs into Chinese elite culture.

In Summary: The Helinge’er tomb serves as a crucial piece of evidence for studying the cultural exchange between Han China and the steppe, showing how, by the 2nd century CE, Hellenistic-inspired art and motifs had become part of the artistic repertoire found in North China and the Eurasian steppe.

https://www.proquest.com/openview/3f94d1d7bc9f9459ab05757b342d55ea/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750

Bradford, R. E. 2009. “The Guyuan Sarcophagus: Motifs and Explication” (diss. Univ. of  Pennsylvania).

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Accounts of Filial Children

https://www.google.com/search?q=Accounts+of+Filial+Children&oq=Accounts+of+Filial+Children&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUyBggAEEUYOdIBDDQzNzExMzAwajBqMKgCALACAA&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

Επισκόπηση AI

Accounts of filial children, deeply rooted in Confucian tradition, emphasize extreme devotion, respect, and obedience toward parents, including acts like physical care, mourning rituals, and sacrifices. Famous tales, such as "The Twenty-four Paragons of Filial Piety," showcase extreme examples, including children enduring harsh conditions to protect or nourish their parents. 

Wikipedia

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Key Aspects of Filial Piety

Physical Care: Providing food, clothes, and comfort, and making sure parents live without worry.

Respect & Obedience: Honoring parents' wishes, obeying them, and avoiding bringing disgrace upon them.

Sacrifice: Offering extreme devotion, such as sacrificing personal comfort, wealth, or safety. 

Victoria and Albert Museum

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Notable Examples of Filial Children

Wu Meng: Endured being bitten by mosquitoes all night to stop them from biting his father.

Shun the Great: A legendary emperor praised for his extreme devotion and filial attitude toward his abusive step-family.

Yu Qianlou: Left his job and tasted his sick father's feces to check his health, even begging to die in his place.

Min Ziqian: Remained loyal and obedient to a cruel stepmother who neglected him and his brothers. 

Rice University

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Contextual Beliefs

Reciprocity: Children are expected to repay the "debt" of being brought into the world by caring for their parents, particularly in old age.

Harmony: Cultivating harmony in the family is seen as a sign of a devoted child, even in difficult situations.

Universal Connection: Filial acts were thought to demonstrate a harmony between heaven, earth, and humanity. 

Academia.edu

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