JULIA DOMNA CHOSE TO BE REPRESENTED AS A HELLENISTIC QUEEN

 Η ΡΩΜΑΙΑ ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΕΙΡΑ ΙΟΥΛΙΑ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΗ (JULIA DOMNA) ΕΠΙΛΕΓΕΙ ΝΑ ΕΜΦΑΝΙΖΕΤΑΙ ΩΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΤΙΚΗ ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΑ!

p. 7

Dio reported that Julia Domna received senatorial delegations, answered imperial correspondence in Greek and Latin, and singlehandedly ran the civic half of the empire in Antioch while Caracalla frittered away precious resources in a pointless campaign against the Parthians.20 {Cass. Dio 79.4. Other scholars have seen this passage as a sort of encomium for the empress (e.g., Taylor 1945), but I suspect that Dio meant to indict Caracalla’s shirking of his civil duties by leaving them to a woman.} ...................

p. 21/251

Geta’s death at the end of 211 precipitated a new ideological crisis for the imperial administration and called for Caracalla’s administration to produce a new set of messages that would promote the new sole reign. Caracalla’s program of propaganda was radically different than his father’s, and as such Julia Domna played a small role. In fact, the power which Julia held in this period—perhaps the greatest power she or any imperial woman had held thus far—was semiofficial: she met with important men, reviewed correspondence in Greek and Latin, and forwarded only the most pressing issues to Caracalla, who campaigned while she stayed in Antioch.89 

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p. 87

While Caracalla was campaigning (or gallivanting, as Dio would characterize it) in the East, Julia Domna was left in Antioch to assume the duties of the civil half of the empire. She conscientiously answered the emperor’s correspondence in Latin and Greek and met with senatorial and provincial delegations.

SUMMARY 

How the maternal image of the empress Julia Domna helped the Roman empire rule. Ancient authors emphasize dramatic moments in the life of Julia Domna, wife of Roman emperor Septimius Severus (193–211). They accuse her of ambition unforgivable in a woman, of instigating civil war to place her sons on the throne, and of resorting to incest to maintain her hold on power. In imperial propaganda, however, Julia Domna was honored with unprecedented titles that celebrated her maternity, whether it was in the role of mother to her two sons (both future emperors) or as the metaphorical mother to the empire. Imperial propaganda even equated her to the great mother goddess, Cybele, endowing her with a public prominence well beyond that of earlier imperial women. Her visage could be found gracing everything from state-commissioned art to privately owned ivory dolls. In Maternal Megalomania, Julie Langford unmasks the maternal titles and honors of Julia Domna as a campaign on the part of the administration to garner support for Severus and his sons. Langford looks to numismatic, literary, and archaeological evidence to reconstruct the propaganda surrounding the empress. She explores how her image was tailored toward different populations, including the military, the Senate, and the people of Rome, and how these populations responded to propaganda about the empress. She employs Julia Domna as a case study to explore the creation of ideology between the emperor and its subjects.

Julia Domna (The Harvard Art Museum 1956.19)

p. 81/82

Perhaps the most interesting and certainly the most unique piece of evidence concerning the reception of Julia Domna by the populations of Rome comes in the form of an articulated ivory doll found in the tomb of the Vestal Virgin Cossinia (see figure 16). The “ancient Barbie,” as she was dubbed in the Italian press, has the hairstyle and features that look much like Julia Domna’s, particularly from the period of Severus’s reign.123 The clothing on the doll, if there was any, has long since decayed, but gold jewelry seems to say something of both the owner and the model for the doll. The owner was likely from a wealthy family and, being a Vestal Virgin, she certainly knew the most powerful and prestigious people in the empire, though this may not have been true when she first acquired the doll. The depiction of the empress is certainly not the maternal figure that the imperial administration so vigorously promoted in Rome. As other commentators have noted, it does not invite or teach its owner to cuddle or nurture it. Instead, the bracelets and sophisticated coiffure bespeak an elegant lifestyle in which beauty and poise are the most valued qualities.124 The doll offers little evidence that she has or will bear, suckle, or nurture children, as we see on the bronze coinage of Julia Domna that was distributed in Rome (see figure 3). This doll — if it was meant to be a representation of Julia Domna —bears no trace of the empress to whom the administration ascribed universal motherhood. Instead, it allows us to see Julia Domna through contemporary female eyes. The girl (and eventually woman) who owned this doll was a Vestal Virgin, someone who rubbed shoulders with powerful men and women. She might well be the elusive woman whose response to imperial portraiture Wood once wondered about.125 

Figure 16. Ivory articulated doll found in the Tomb of the Vestal Virgin Cossinia. Photograph courtesy of the VRoma Project (www.vroma.org) with permission from the Ministero per i Beni e la Attività Culturali–Sporintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici

Τα Νευρόσπαστα και οι θεατρικές παραστάσεις ήταν της "μόδας" μεταξύ των Ελλήνων όπως τουλάχιστον αναφέρεται από τους Έλληνες και Ρωμαίους συγγραφείς. Για πολλούς το θέατρο νευροσπάστων ήταν το σύμβολο της ανθρώπινης μοίρας. Επιφανείς κλασικοί συγγραφείς, φιλόσοφοι, θεολόγοι και επιστήμονες, όπως ο Πλάτων, ο Μάρκος Αυρήλιος, ο Κλήμης ο Αλεξανδρεύς, ο Ευσέβιος, ο Επίκτητος, ο Φίλων και άλλοι κάνουν συχνές περιγραφές για τις μαριονέτες και τον τρόπο που κινούνταν χρησιμοποιώντας τη λέξη ΄"νευρόσπαστον" συνώνυμη της λατινικής λέξης marionette.

Ο Πλάτων στο βιβλίο του «Οι Νόμοι» κάνει αναφορά στις μαριονέτες λέγοντας: «Ας υποθέσουμε ότι ο καθένας από εμάς είναι ένα "νευρόσπαστο" (κινούμενη φιγούρα) που βρίσκεται στα χέρια των Θεών για τη δική τους διασκέδαση ή επειδή είχαν ένα σοβαρό σκοπό για μας για τον οποίο δε γνωρίζουμε τίποτα. Οι παρορμήσεις που μας κινούν μοιάζουν με κλωστές που τις τραβούν οι θεοί από διάφορες κατευθύνσεις …»

Ο Αριστοτέλης στο σύγγραμμα «Τα Πολιτικά» αναφέρεται στα αγάλματα του Δαίδαλου που είχαν τη μοναδική ιδιότητα στην αγαλματοποιία να έχουν την ικανότητα να κινούνται από μόνα τους.

Ο Οράτιος, ο σατυρικός Πέρσιος Φλάκος, και ο Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας Μάρκος Αυρήλιος αμφιβάλουν για την ελεύθερη βούληση του ανθρώπου συγκρίνοντας τον με νευρόσπαστο.

Οι Ελληνικές μαριονέτες κατασκευάζονταν από τερακότα (ψημένο χώμα - πηλός), κερί, ελεφαντόδοντο ή ξύλο. Οι εξαιρετικές κατασκευές ήταν από ασήμι. https://www.marionette.gr/history.php                     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Σε ένα πρόσφατο έργο αφιερωμένο σε μια εξαιρετική ομάδα διακοσμημένων νευρόσπαστων από τερακότα από τη συλλογή Sambon (Μιλάνο), που χρονολογείται από την ελληνιστική και την ρωμαϊκή περίοδο, σημείωσα ότι ακόμη και για τη λειτουργία και το νόημα των μαριονετών δεν είναι δυνατόν να αγνοηθεί εντελώς η σύνδεση, τουλάχιστον αρχική, με θρησκευτικές τελετές και αποτροπαϊκά αποτελέσματα. Είναι οι ίδιες οι πηγές (Ηρόδοτος, 2.48 in primis) που υποδηλώνουν ότι τα νευρόσπαστα, δηλαδή μορφές με κινητά μέλη που μπορούν να γίνουν αντικείμενα χειρισμού με χορδές, πριν γίνουν ο πλούτος των κουκλοπαικτών και η χαρά των παιδιών, ήταν υποκατάστατα ή αγάλματα των θεοτήτων στις ιερές τελετές [13]. Η διφορούμενη αξία ορισμένων ακροβατικών και ισορροπιστικών κινήσεων, που παλινδρομεί μεταξύ της απλής έννοιας του παιχνιδιού / σχόλης και μιας βαθύτερης (αλλά μερικές φορές δυσνόητης) τελετουργικής και αποτροπαϊκής φύσεως, είναι επιπλέον το ίδιο που η πρόσφατη βιβλιογραφία έχει επαναστέλλεται μεταξύ μιας απλής έννοιας του ludus και μιας βαθύτερης (αλλά μερικές φορές δυσνόητης) τελετουργικής αξίας και αποτροπαϊκό, είναι επιπλέον το ίδιο που η πρόσφατη βιβλιογραφία έχει επίσης αναγνωρίσει για τις κούκλες από τερακότα με κινητά άκρα [14].-

TO ΒΛΕΜΜΑ ΚΑΤΑΜΑΤΑ, H JULIA DOMNA, ΟΙ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΤΙΚΕΣ - ΑΙΓΥΠΤΙΑΚΕΣ ΝΕΚΡΙΚΕΣ ΠΡΟΣΩΠΟΓΡΑΦΙΕΣ & ΟΙ ΧΡΙΣΤΑΝΙΚΕΣ ΕΙΚΟΝΕΣ ..

ΑΠΟ ΤΙΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΤΙΚΕΣ ΝΕΚΡΙΚΕΣ ΠΡΟΣΩΠΟΓΡΑΦΙΕΣ ΤΗΣ ΑΡΣΙΝΟΪΤΙΔΟΣ ΣΤΙΣ ΧΡΙΣΤΙΑΝΙΚΕΣ ΕΙΚΟΝΕΣ .. ΣΕΠΤΙΜΙΟΣ ΣΕΒΗΡΟΣ & ΟΙΚΟΓΕΝΕΙΑ

Αυτός είναι ο μόνος διατηρημένος αρχαίος πίνακας της αυτοκρατορικής οικογένειας του Ρωμαίου Αυτοκράτορα Σεπτίμιου Σεβήρου. Εδώ, μπορούμε να δούμε την σύζυγό του Ιουλία Δόμνα (Julia Domna) και τους γιους του, Caracalla και Geta, με τα βασιλικά διάσημα. Μετά την δολοφονία του Γέτα για λογαριασμό του Καρακάλλα, η μνήμη του εξαλείφθηκε και το πρόσωπο του πρίγκιπα ξύστηκε (damnatio memoriae). Τέμπερα σε ξύλο. Αποκτήθηκε από την Αίγυπτο το 1932 μ.Χ. Ρωμαϊκή Αίγυπτος, 200 μ.Χ. Εκτίθεται στο Μουσείο Altes στο Βερολίνο, Γερμανία. 

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Mathews, T. F. 2021. "The Origin of Icons

Για να κατανοήσουμε τα τυπικά χαρακτηριστικά των χριστιανικών εικόνων είναι απαραίτητο να ξεκινήσουμε με τα 'παγανιστικά' προηγούμενά τους. Ο μοναδικός πιο σημαντικός πίνακας ζωγραφικής της αρχαιότητας είναι ο Septimitis Sevengs and Family, που αγοράστηκε στην Αίγυπτο το 1932 από το Antikensammlung του Βερολίνου. Εξαιρείται από την έρευνα του Rondot ως μη Αιγυπτιακός, θεωρούμενος απλώς ως ένα ρωμαϊκό πορτρέτο (Rondot 2013)[Rondot 2013 / Derniers visages des dieux d'Egypte: Iconographies, panthéons et cultes dans le Fayoum hellénisé des IIe-IIIe siècles de notre ère], αυτό το έργο είναι εντελώς αιγυπτιακό και βαθιά θρησκευτικό με τρεις τρόπους: πρώτον, η εικονογραφία του ταυτίζει τον αυτοκράτορα με τον Σέραπιν, τον αρχαίο θεό της γονιμότητας και της αναγεννήσεως. . [ΣτΣ: Οι δύο αυτοί θεοί - Σέραπις & Αρποκράτης - εισήχθησαν από τους Έλληνες αρχικώς στην Αίγυπτο προκειμένου να εξυπηρετήσουν την ενιαιοποίηση και τον συγκερασμό, κατά το δυνατόν, της λατρείας μεταξύ των διαφορετικών λαών, μάλιστα ο Σέραπις ανακηρύχθηκε ως πολιούχος της Αλεξανδρείας, γεγονός το οποίο επιβεβαιώνεται από το ότι κεραμεικό αγαλματίδιο πανομοιότυπο του Σεράπιος της Xinjiang αναγνωρίσθηκε στην Πτολεμαϊκή Αλεξάνδρεια!] Δεύτερον, είναι μια προσφορά ναού που χαρακτηρίζεται ως 'ανάθημα' (πάπυρος Oxy.1449)[P.Oxy. XII 1449TM Nr. 21850, Return of Temple Property]. Ο όρος προέρχεται από το ελληνικό ρήμα «ανατίθεμι», που σημαίνει «αφιερώνω ή κάνω μια προσφορά για κάτι». Η παρουσίαση μιας εικόνας στην εκκλησία σηματοδότησε την αφιέρωσή της, όπως αναφέρεται στη Β' Σύνοδο της Nίκαιας. του 787 μ.Χ., ακριβώς με αυτόν τον όρο. Και τρίτον, επαναπροσδιορίζει το πάνθεον με την εξάλειψη του νεότερου θεϊκού πρίγκιπα Γέτα που εκτελέστηκε από τον αδελφό του [Καρακάλλα]. .. 

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RONDOT 2013: 

Κατά τη διάρκεια ενός αιώνα, επίσημες ή μυστικές ανασκαφές στην αιγυπτιακή επαρχία Φαγιούμ έχουν αποκαλύψει σημαντικό αριθμό ξύλινων πινάκων εντός πλαισίου οι οποίοι είναι ζωγραφισμένοι με θεότητες. Σήμερα διαθέτουμε ένα σώμα περίπου πενήντα από αυτούς τους πίνακες, πλήρεις ή αποσπασματικούς. Είναι σύγχρονοι με τις αποκαλούμενες προσωπογραφίες σε μούμιες «Fayoum» και απ' όσο μπορούμε να κρίνουμε, ζωγραφίστηκαν τον 2ο αι. μ.Χ. Αυτοί οι πίνακες είναι πολύτιμοι για την ιστορία της τέχνης γιατί προσφέρουν μιαν εξαιρετική μαρτυρία για την ζωγραφική επί τρίποδος [ΣτΣ: οκρίβας ή καβαλέτο], όπως αυτή ασκούνταν στον ελληνο - ρωμαϊκό κόσμο, και την σημασία της οποίας αντιλαμβανόμαστε χάρη στις κλασικές λογοτεχνικές πηγές (ιδιαίτερα του Πλίνιου του Πρεσβυτέρου) αφιερωμένες στα αριστουργήματα των μεγάλων δασκάλων που έφυγαν από την ζωή. Από τη σκοπιά της αιγυπτιακής αρχαιολογίας, μας αποκαλύπτουν τις βαθιές αλλαγές στην μορφή λατρειών και των τελετουργιών των ναών, αφού αυτές οι ζωγραφιές λειτουργούν με τον τρόπο των εικόνων. Δείχνουν επίσης -και ίσως πάνω απ' όλα- πώς μια θρησκεία τόσον αρχαία όσο η αιγυπτιακή θρησκεία, και με κώδικες αναπαραστάσεως τόσον περιοριστικούς όσο ο φαραωνικός κανόνας, μπόρεσε τελικά να δεχτεί ότι ο Ελληνισμός έφτασε να αλλάξει ριζικά την τριχιλιετή. εικονογραφία των θεών του, μεταμορφώνοντας τον Σόμπεκ σε προφίλ και με το κεφάλι ενός σαυριανού σε γενειοφόρο χαρακτήρα που κρατά τον κροκόδειλο του στα γόνατά του, όπως ο Δίας τον κεραυνό του. Για πρώτη φορά, αυτό το σώμα παρουσιάζεται εδώ με αιτιολογημένο τρόπο, σε έγχρωμη φωτογράφιση (Henri Choimet), καθώς και εικονογραφική περιγραφή και ανάλυση. Έτσι σχηματίζονται πολλά πάνθεον, αυτό της αρχαίας Αιγύπτου τώρα δίπλα σε αυτό των θεών του ελληνορωμαϊκού κόσμου ή ακόμα και αυτό των θεοτήτων που λατρεύονται από ένα έθνος (οι Άραβες των ελληνικών κειμένων;) εγκατεστημένο στην επικράτειά του.

C. Breil, L. Huestegge & A. Böckler. 2022. "From eye to arrow: Attention capture by direct gaze requires more than just the eyes," Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics (2022) 84, pp. 64–75.                     

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Tomoko Isomura, Katsumi Watanabe. 2020. "Direct gaze enhances interoceptive accuracy," Cognition 195, https://www.sciencedirect.com/.../pii/S0010027719302872)

Abstract: Direct-gaze signals are known to modulate human cognition, including self-awareness. In the present study, we specifically focused on ‘bodily’ self-awareness and examined whether direct gaze would modulate one’s interoceptive accuracy (IAcc)—the ability to accurately monitor internal bodily sensations. While viewing a photograph of a frontal face with a direct gaze, an averted face or a mere white cross as a baseline, participants were required to count their heartbeats without taking their pulse. The results showed higher IAcc in the direct-gaze condition than in the averted-face or baseline condition. This was particularly the case in participants with low IAcc at baseline, indicating that direct gaze enhanced the participants’ IAcc. Importantly, their heart rate was not different while viewing the direct gaze and averted face, suggesting that sensitivity to interoceptive signals, rather than physiological arousal, is heightened by direct gaze. These findings demonstrate the role of social signals in our bodily interoceptive processing and support the notion of the social nature of self-awareness.

Keywords: Interoception; Heartbeat; Gaze; Self-awareness

ΕΠΙΣΤΟΛΗ ΙΟΥΛΙΑΣ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΗΣ ΠΡΟΣ ΕΦΕΣΙΟΥΣ (Souris 2009)

Μπορεί να είναι εικόνα κείμενο που λέει

"*** Ιουλία **Σεβαστή *** Εφεσί[οις]
πάσαις μέν πόλεσιν καί σύνπασι δήμοις *** ε[ύεργεσιών] 

τυνχάνειν τού γλυκυτάτου μου vioũ vac. τού α[ύτοκράτο]- 

ρος συνε[ύχομαι, μάλιστα δέ τη ύμετέρα διά [τό μέγεθος] 

καί κάλλος καί τήν λοιπήν [αξίζωσιν καί τό παδ[ευτήριον]

είναι τοϊς πανταχόθεν έ[λθούσιν 기?] έργαστήριον [****?]"

Bertolazzi, p. 3

The dominant philosophical thought in Domna’s salon was Neopythagoreanism, a Hellenistic school that, among other things, theorized the cosmic origin of imperial power 17 .

Bertolazzi, p. 237-238, nn. 874, 875

874 Dio mentions Domna’s philosophical salon twice, once during the narration of Severus’ reign (76 [75].15.6), and, later on, in reference to Caracalla’s reign (78 [77].18.3). It seems, therefore, that Domna’s relationship with sophists and philosophers was a well-known fact among her contemporaries. On the topic cf. Levick 2007, 107-123 with further references. It is also interesting to note that, as far as we know, all the philosophers and literati having something to do with Domna’s circle were from the Greek part of the Empire, a circumstance that would make this salon purely Hellenistic (as stressed by Buraselis 1991, 34). Contrary to what is argued by Levick 2007, 163, there is no reason to think that this circle was restricted to people from Greece and Asia Minor only. According to the Suda (s.v. Φρόντων [Adler p. 763]), the Emesene sophist Fronto {Marcus Cornelius Fronto .. taught as a child by the Greek paedagogus Aridelus, Later, he continued his education at Rome[7] with the philosopher Athenodotus and the orator Dionysius} was in Rome at the time of Severus, and he is described as the rival teacher of Philostratus. These facts have led Buraselis 1991, 35 to think that Fronto followed Domna from Emesa to Rome. Curiously enough, he bequeathed his property to his nephew Cassius Longinus, the famous rhetorician who was teacher and chief counselor of Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra.

875 Vita Apoll. 1.3: καὶ προσήκων τις τῷ Δάµιδι τὰς δέλτους τῶν ὑποµνηµάτων τούτων οὔπω

γιγνωσκοµένας ἐς γνῶσιν ἤγαγεν Ἰουλίᾳ τῇ βασιλίδι. Μετέχοντι δέ µοι τοῦ περὶ αὐτὴν κύκλου,

καὶ γὰρ τοὺς ῥητορικοὺς πάντας λόγους ἐπῄνει καὶ ἠσπάζετο, µεταγράψαι τε προσέταξε τὰς

διατριβὰς ταύτας καὶ τῆς ἀπαγγελίας αὐτῶν ἐπιµεληθῆναι (‘The notebooks containing the memoirs of Damis [scil. a disciple of Apollonius] were unknown until a member of his family brought them to the attention of the empress Julia. Since I was a member of her circle - for she admired and encouraged all rhetorical discourse - she set me to trancribe these works of Damis and to take care over their style [transl. by Christopher P. Jones]’). Some scholars have rejected the historical accuracy of this information, arguing that Philostratus’ references to Damis’ writings are fictional expedients to confer authority upon his work (on the topic cf. the synopses of the debate in Kemezis 2014a, 63-68; Sfameni Gasparro 2007, 283-184). Kemezis 2014a has also questioned the existence of a relationship between Domna and Philostratus. In my view, the existence of this connection seems difficult to confute. Philostratus mentions Domna’s circle of sophists in VS 2.30 too, and there is no reason to believe that he lied to his contemporaries regarding his affinity with this circle (similar considerations are expressed by Sfameni Gasparro 2007, 283). Furthermore, he sent a letter concerning Plato’s critique of rhetoric to the Augusta (Ep. 73). The autenticity of this document has also been debated, but Robert Penella, the editor and commentator of Apollonius’ letters, has reaffirmed its genuineness (cf. Penella 1979). 

...................... 

Bertolazzi, p. 275

Curiously enough, both Semiramis and Nictoris, the oriental queens that, according to Dio, Domna wanted to emulate, put an end to their lives while facing conspirators1011. Thus, besides the desire to rule alone, the way in which these queens left the world may have suggested to Dio the comparison between them and Domna. In the eyes of the historian, to all intents and purposes, Domna decided to die as an oriental queen1012. Correspondences with the suicides of Hellenistic queens can provide further food for thought. As noted above, Cleopatra committed suicide in  order to avoid being dishonored and taken to Rome as a captive. More than two centuries before, in 287 BCE, the noble and influential Phila, daughter of Antipater and wife of Demetrius Poliorcetes, committed suicide after her husband had been driven out of Macedonia and had lost his throne1013. Both stories display a common trait, the desire to die rather than to face the consequences of the loss of power and prestige connected with royal rank. In short, Domna’s tragic end seems to show consistency with her middleeastern cultural background. 

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https://prism.ucalgary.ca/.../7f6e9880-293d-42eb.../content --

1 ημ.

Απάντηση

Bertolazzi, p. 277

Finally, her decision to let herself die rather than to retire to a private station seems to be quite an unusual one, and makes Domna more similar to an Hellenistic queen, like Phila, rather than to a Roman imperial woman, like Domitia Longina. 

...... 

Bertolazzi, p. 330

Considering the fact that her life was not in immediate danger, her decision to let herself die is quite surprising, and seems to follow Hellenistic customs rather than Roman habits. 

........................... 

Bertolazzi, p. 331

Domna’s refusal to abandon her royal retinue and to retire to private life provides not only an idea of the great prestige that she had attained during the reigns of Severus and Caracalla, but also a key element in better understanding her complex character. This is her strong Hellenistic cultural background, which makes her a unique imperial woman in Roman history. In fact, she did not limit herself to playing the traditional role of an Augusta, i.e. that of an austere Roman matron, wife of the emperor and, possibly, mother of his children. Rather the contrary, she appears to have been determined to affirm the importance of her oriental lineage since the first stages of her marriage with Severus. L. Septimius Bassianus, the name given to their firstborn son in 188, included the cognomen of Domna’s father, Julius Bassianus. This was the great priest of the Sun-god Elagabal, a member of the Emesene nobility that, during the first century CE, had ruled over the small (but importantly regarded) kingdom of Emesa and formed relationship with other middle eastern dynasties. During the second century, the kingdom lost its independence, but the Emesene elite still maintained prestige and ambitions. ...................................... 

Bertolazzi, p. 335

It is important to note that she is the first imperial woman who had a group of philosophers gathered around her, and that only Greek individuals are documented members of this group, which could, consequently, be considered a Hellenistic circle. 

....................... 

Bertolazzi, p. 340

Rather, Domna’s cultural tastes probably had a deep impact on Caracalla’s personality and policies. Besides showing particular attention towards divine matters on his coins, this emperor displayed a great interest for Hellenism. He paid honors to one of Domna’s favorite philosophers, Apollonius of Tyana, and dedicated a shrine to him; he put great effort into imitating Alexander the Great and, finally, tried to marry the daughter of the Parthian king Artabanus V. Ancient historians branded these initiatives as the extravagances of a tyrannical and mentally unstable ruler. They become, nonetheless, understandable when one considers Domna’s cultural background and philosophical preferences. By honoring Apollonius, Caracalla demonstrated sharing his mother’s Neopythagorean view concerning kingship. 

...................... 

Bertolazzi, pp. 340-341

Her final decision to die rather than to retire to private life finds no comparison among Roman imperial women, and seems to recall the suicides of several Hellenistic queens who did not want to be dishonored by losing their royal status. 

................................................................ 

Bertolazzi 2017, p. 341

She represents something more. She seems, in sum, to have been a Hellenistic queen who, in a shrewd and original manner, played the role of Roman Augusta with great success. Bertolazzi, R. (2017). Julia Domna: Public Image and Private Influence of a Syrian Queen (Doctoral thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada). Retrieved from

https://prism.ucalgary.ca. doi:10.11575/PRISM/26693

https://www.worldhistory.org/Amastris/?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR3F7hMZLpQkAeQ0P1tnGfVNWibZOOlGmox6AgRPkk6qaJSUhwvpTnAd_nE_aem_AUoqfuu7e40QqjvPVhe9uXdx_AIFPDGEdEyaQddFIQFm4u_v3SEU0LwSkqHrlPtcVILHScKPU8s5NRnPJW_MT_2D

While Phila, the wife of Demetrius I of Macedon (c. 336 - c. 282 BCE), was the first woman to receive the title basilissa (c. 305/4 BCE), these were the first coins ever to be issued in the name of a queen or any living woman and should thus be interpreted as a bold statement of female authority. It would be remarkable, to say the least, if the Persian Amastris reigned independently – that is, as female sovereign, rather than a king's wife. She was royal by birth, Dionysius had claimed kingship shortly before his death, and Lysimachus had likewise laid claim to kingship. It appears, then, that Lysimachus had arranged for Amastris to rule as queen along the Paphlagonian coast. 

............ 

The First basilissa: Phila, Daughter of Antipater and Wife of Demetrius Poliorcetes

Η ΣΥΝΑΝΤΗΣΗ ΜΕ ΤΟΝ ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΑ ΤΥΑΝΕΑ & ΤΟΝ ΒΟΥΔΙΣΜΟ 

Kushan ring with Septimus Severus and Julia Domna. Gold finger ring from Ancient India. Kushan period, early 3rd century AD. Solid gold ring, of typical Roman shape, fabricated rather than cast. The intaglio bezel was made separately and carefully fitted into the ring (the join visible only in a slightly damaged area on the edge of the bezel). The bezel is decorated with vis-à-vis portraits of Septimius Severus (laureate head left) and Julia Domna (draped bust right with elaborate coiffure), beneath which is a Gupta Brahmi inscription in a characteristic square-serif style: Damputrasya Dhanguptasya ([Seal of] Dhangupta son of Dama). This image has been mirrored in order to render the inscription legible. 

Χρυσό Δαχτυλίδι από την Ινδία: Κοσσανικό (Kushan) με τον Σεπτίμιο Σεβήρο & την Ιουλία Δόμνα (αρχές 3ου αιώνα μ.Χ.) Δαχτυλίδι από μασίφ χρυσό, τυπικού ρωμαϊκού σχήματος, κατασκευασμένο και όχι χυτό. Το έμβλημα κατασκευάστηκε ξεχωριστά και τοποθετήθηκε προσεκτικά στο δαχτυλίδι (η ένωση είναι ορατή μόνο σε μια ελαφρώς κατεστραμμένη περιοχή στην άκρη της στεφάνης). Το πλαίσιο είναι διακοσμημένο με πορτραίτα του Σεβήρου (κεφαλή αριστερά) και της Ιουλίας Δόμνας (προτομή ντυμένη δεξιά με περίτεχνη κόμμωση), κάτω από την οποία υπάρχει μια επιγραφή σε Gupta Brahmi σε χαρακτηριστικό τετράγωνο serif ύφος: Damputrasya Dhanguptasya ([Σφραγίδα του] Dhangupta υιου της Dama). Αυτή η εικόνα έχει καθρεφτιστεί για να καταστεί ευανάγνωστη η επιγραφή. Kushan ring with Septimus Severus and Julia Domna.jpg

Η ΣΥΝΑΝΤΗΣΗ ΜΕ ΤΟΝ ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΑ ΤΥΑΝΕΑ & ΤΟΝ ΒΟΥΔΙΣΜΟ 

The decorative epithet “Damputrasya Danaguptasta” in Prakrit Brahmi inscribed on a gold ring depicts Julia Domna (160 – 217 CE) facing Septimus Severus (193 – 211 CE), the first Roman Emperor from Africa (fig.14).[16]

The facing profile busts common in funerary dedications adopts the style of Roman coinage. The ornamental square serif characteristic of the Gupta script has the flourish of an accomplished scribe in the royal court.

The spectacular jugate ring introduces the Gupta dynastic name as Danagupta, meaning protector or governor of wealth and prosperity. The dedication of the revered relic is by the son of Domna (Damputrasya); commemorative relics as such accrue merit to the devout. In this context, the name appellation Dana and Dana – deva from an earlier inscription from North India describes Bhuti as wealth, prosperity, ornament, andadornment. Since Julia Domna’s two sons had died dreadfully, the self-proclaimed “Son of Domna” could be her grand-nephew, Elagabalus or Heliogabalus (Ηλιογάβαλος) of Emesa (Έμεσα ήτοι σύγχρονη Homs, τέως Σελευκιδική πόλη) , the Roman emperor from 218 to 222. The votive ring was indeed deposited in a stupa reliquary by 222 CE before the decline of Rome started. The intermediaries were assuredly the wealthy Nabataean merchant princes vigorously contributing to the Mahayana mortuary cult. Significantly, the royal mausoleum of Augustus Caesar (63 BCE – 14 CE), erected in 28 BCE by the emperor on the Campus Martius in Rome, is prototypical of the stupa monuments in South Asia.[17]

Elagabalus, her great-nephew, deified Julia Domna; her statue shows her as a priestess inthe Imperial cult with covered head wrapped in voluminous himation draped like a saree (fig.15).The Jamalpur Yakshi holding a sprig near her pudendum restates the suggestive sprig of fruit in Domna’s hand. The lotus and Amrit Kalash pedestal identify the Yakhsi as Sri Devi; the goddess of fertility and nourishment in the afterlife offers her breast in the manner of Isis-Venus(fig.16).[18]

How we comprehend the past in the present depends on our knowledge and understanding of the context they were created. Domna, known as Philosopher Queen, was powerful and influential. Her crossing point with the Buddhist culture occurred when she chose to give up life by starvation. Her mysterious Nirvana, similar to the “Starving Buddha,” described by historians as her inability to deal with disappointments in life, does not give credit to her philosophical acumen or her extensive appeal as a goddess worshipped across the empireunder various local titles.[19]

By birth, Julia Domna of the Emesene dynasty was the eldest daughter of Julius Bassianus, the High Priest of Syrian sun god Elagabalus integrated into the Roman pantheon as Sol (Surya, ΗΛΙΟΣ). The togate Buddha enlightened by the halo resembles Sol Invictus or Invincible Sun in the Roman imperial cult. Chakravartin, the world ruler in the image of the Sun, advocates monotheistic devotion to the God-King worshiped as Vishnu and his Avatars, including the Buddha, in the following Gupta period. Julia Domna admired Apollonius of Tyana (ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΙΟΣ ΤΥΑΝΕΥΣ, c.15 – 96CE), the wandering philosopher and magician in India mistaken for Christ and now understood as the teachings of Buddha contemporary to Pythagoras.[20]

“The Life of Apollonius,” commissioned by Domna, was written by Flavius Philostratus (ΦΙΛΟΣΤΡΑΤΟΣ Ο ΑΘΗΝΑΙΟΣ εκ ΛΗΜΝΟΥ), a sophist philosopher in her Inner Circle.[21]

Philostratus combined Pythagorean Neo-Platonism, mystic relation between man and divinities. Domna agreed with his political philosophy, personal ethics, and views on the worship of statues representing deities and the immortal soul in the image of the sun god. 

SOURCE: "Buddhist and Gupta Imagery in Conjunction with Rituals and Linguistic Anthropology", Arputharani Sengupta

https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic%20letter%3DD%3Aentry%20group%3D16%3Aentry%3Ddomna-julia-bio-1&fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR3ZXTm1Umw_FbUleWRvu4rfSbvYyorO8dyM95ThjDCu9y7tF2-daSOcpFA_aem_AZbNIvNSxQ8Rfki39UfxH_i6ONbeWK4GRFTbEj2oYYKINY9R2438znweiAedO3EQePFcIdUCtCpz7maGw7v4oJgb
A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology (William Smith, Ed.), s.v. Domna, Ju'lia: By her commands Philostratus undertook to write the life of Apollonius, of Tyana, and she was wont to pass whole days surrounded by troops of grammarians, rhetoricians, and sophists.

Η ΙΟΥΛΙΑ ΔΟΜΝΑ ΩΣ ΑΘΗΝΑ ΠΟΛΙΑΣ

DECREE ASSIGNING DIVINE HONORS TO JULIA DOMNA

https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/hesperia/146603.pdf?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR0pLoh_hw4dmkxV2aHD5ujLPYML-F6vCuSmPku2hkS5Gi_-LhtYTEeBDr0_aem_AZYvWs1uTU1GPq9QcvQ89Whm9Sb-B3jcEC6PE_AOnSd6fd4P8Cn5-nfqgBe1bu1ndvYrBNSTJTWAzps9BibhrNuF

Στο Βρετανικό Μουσείο φυλάσσεται θραύσμα λευκού μαρμάρου φέρον επιγραφή στην Ελληνική αναφερόμενη στον θάνατο - αυτοκτονία της Ιουλίας Δόμνας λόγω ασιτίας .. (BM reg. nr. 1874,0205.14: A fragment of white marble, broken on all sides with the remains of three lines of Greek inscription. The inscription is a dedication to Julia Domna, wife of the emperor Septimius Severus and erected in her lifetime) 

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Julia Domna's use of Athena is apparent in a fragmentary replica of the socalled 'Athena Medici' statue type in Thessaloniki (Figs. 1-2).3 These fragments are well known in studies of the Medici statue type and have additional interest for technical reasons, since they stem from an acrolithic statue.4 The photographs clearly show how the head has the cheeks prepared for the fastening of additional hair. Further, the face has the characteristic features, like the distinctive mouth, of Julia Domna. 

Η παραβολή της Ιουλίας Δόμνας με την Αθηνά είναι εμφανής σε ένα αποσπασματικό αντίγραφο του αποκαλούμενου αγάλματος «Athena Medici» από την Θεσσαλονίκη (Εικ. 1-2) . Αυτά τα θραύσματα είναι καλώς γνωστά στις μελέτες αυτού του τύπου αγάλματος (του Medici) και παρουσιάζουν επιπλέον ενδιαφέρον για τεχνικούς λόγους, αφού προέρχονται από ακρολιθικό άγαλμα.4 Οι φωτογραφίες δείχνουν καθαρά πώς η κεφαλή έχει τα μάγουλα προετοιμασμένα για το στερέωση πρόσθετων μαλλιών. Περαιτέρω, το πρόσωπο έχει τα χαρακτηριστικά της Ιουλίας Δόμνας, ιδιαίτερα το στόμα της ... ΠΗΓΗ: Lundgreen 2004

Αναφορικά με την 'ταύτιση' ή παραβολή της Ιουλίας Δόμας με την Αθηνά σημειώνεται ότι η σχετική πρακτική έχει τις ρίζες της στην Ελληνιστική εποχή .. Γιά παράδειγμα αυτό υποδηλώνεται ήδη στην ελληνιστική περίοδο, ένα δε πρώιμο παράδειγμα παρέχεται από τον Καλλίμαχο όπου αυτός αφομοιώνει - ταυτίζει την Βερενίκη ΙΙ (πρίν τον γάμο της) με την Αθηνά ..

Reconstruction by G. Despinis of the acrolithic

Athena Medici/Julia Domna statue, Thessaloniki Museum,

inv. no. 877 (after Despinis, G. 1975. Aκρόλιθα. Αthens, fig. 3).

Έργα που χρησιμοποιούνται για πορτρέτα, κυρίως γυναικών της αυτοκρατορικής οικογένειας, αποτελούν μια ακόμη κατηγορία «αντιγράφων» θεϊκών εικόνων της Κλασικής περιόδου. Αυτό συμβαίνει με ένα ακρολιθικό άγαλμα σε μέγεθος μεγαλύτερο του κανονικούμε του β' αιώνα μ.Χ. στη Θεσσαλονίκη (Εικ. 20.8). Μόνο το κεφάλι του, το οποίο επανακόπηκε αντιγράφον κεφαλή της Ιουλίας Δόμνας, συζύγου του Σεπτίμιου Σεβήρου (193–211), το δεξί πόδι και το δεξί χέρι σώζονται.37 Το έργο αρχικά απεικόνιζε τον τύπο της Αθηνάς των Μεδίκων, όρθια μορφή που φορά ελαφρύ χιτώνα με άφθονες πτυχές σημειωμένες κυρίως στο δεξί πόδι, που προεξέχει κάτω από τον βαρύ αττικό πέπλο.

Ο τύπος έχει συνδεθεί με πρωτότυπο του Φειδία ή ένός από τους μαθητές του και χρονολογείται γύρω στο 430 π.Χ. Έχει προταθεί ότι αντικατοπτρίζει το χάλκινο άγαλμα της Αθηνάς Προμάχου του Φειδία στην Αθηναϊκή Ακρόπολη.38 Μετά την Αθηνά Παρθένο, η Αθηνά Μεδίκων είναι ο τύπος που προτιμάται περισσότερο για αναπαραστάσεις της θεάς στην Αυτοκρατορική περίοδο στην Ελλάδα, από την οποία προέρχονται εννέα εκδοχές ποικίλου μεγέθους και ποιότητας χειροτεχνίας.

Τα έργα αυτά χρονολογούνται κυρίως στον δεύτερο αιώνα μ.Χ., την εποχή του Αδριανού και των Αντωνίνων, και τα περισσότερα από αυτά προέρχονται από την Αθήνα.39 Η μελέτη της προέλευσης και χρήσης εκδοχών αυτού του τύπου –όπου είναι δυνατόν– έδειξε ότι ενώ μεγάλα έργα που βρίσκονταν σε βίλες και δημόσια κτίρια προέρχονταν από την Ιταλία, αφιερωτικά αγαλματίδια και ανάγλυφα προέρχονταν από την Ελλάδα και ιδιαίτερα από την Αθήνα, πράγμα που σημαίνει ότι το αρχέτυπο υπήρχε ακόμα τον δεύτερο αιώνα μ.Χ. και διατήρησε τον λατρευτικό του χαρακτήρα.40

Το άγαλμα της Θεσσαλονίκης είναι το μοναδικό δείγμα του τύπου με το δεξί χέρι που σώζεται, επιβεβαιώνοντας ότι η θεά κρατούσε ένα δόρυ στο χέρι, καθώς και το μοναδικό που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για πορτρέτο, παρόλο που το άγαλμα ήταν κατασκευασμένο εκ νέου.41 

.. ............ 

Στυλιανός Ε. Κατάκης, 20 Αντίγραφα Ελληνικού Αγαλματίου από την Ελλάδα στη Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορική Περίοδο 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 

p. 630-631

Works used for portraits, mainly of women of the Imperial family, constitute one more class of ‘copies’ of divine images of the Classical period. This is the case with a larger-than-life second-century A.D. acrolithic statue in Thessaloniki (Fig. 20.8). Only its head, which was recut into a portrait of Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus (A.D. 193–211), right leg, and right hand survive.37 The work originally portrayed the Athena Medici type, a standing figure wearing a light chiton with an abundance of folds marked mainly on the right leg, which projects beneath the heavy Attic peplos.

The type has been associated with Pheidias or one of his pupils and dated to around 430 B.C.; it has been suggested that it reflects Pheidias’ bronze statue of Athena Promachos on the Athenian Acropolis.38 After the Athena Parthenos, the Athena Medici is the type most favoured for representations of the goddess in the Imperial period in Greece, from which come nine versions of varying size and quality of craftsmanship.

These works are dated mainly to the second century A.D., the age of Hadrian and the Antonines, and most of them come from Athens.39 The study of the origin and use of versions of this type – wherever possible – has shown that while large works located in villas and public buildings came from Italy, dedicatory statuettes and reliefs came from Greece and especially from Athens, which means that the archetype was still in existence in the second century A.D. and retained its cultic character.40

The Thessaloniki statue is the only example of the type with the right hand preserved, confirming that the goddess held a spear in that hand, as well as the only one which was employed for a portrait, even though the statue was recut.41 

.............. 

Katakis 2019.

ΒΙΒΛΙΟΓΡΑΦΙΑ

https://www.marionette.gr/history.php

Η ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ ΤΗΣ ΜΑΡΙΟΝΕΤΑΣ, Θέατρο Μαριονέττας 'Γκότση'

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Langford, J. 2013. Maternal Megalomania. Julia Domna and the Imperial Politics of Motherhod, Baltimore.

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Mathews, T. F. "The Origin of Icons," in The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Art and Architecture (Oxford Handbooks), ed. E. C. Schwartz, pp.  (ed.) 

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Breil, C., L. Huestegge, A. Böckler. 2022. "From eye to arrow: Attention capture by direct gaze requires more than just the eyes," Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 84, pp. 64–75.

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Tomoko Isomura & Katsumi Watanabe. 2020. "Direct gaze enhances interoceptive accuracy," Cognition 195 (2020) 104113, pp. 1-5.

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Souris, G. 2009. "A παιδεύσεως ἐργαστήριον for «Hellenes» in Ephesos. Iulia Domna’s letter to the city," Chiron 39, pp. 359–362.

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Lundgreen, B. 2004. "Use and Abuse of Athena in Roman Imperial Portraiture: The Case of Julia Domna," Proceedings of the Danish Institute at Athens 4,  pp. 69-91.

Arputharani Sengupta. 2021. "Buddhist and Gupta Imagery in Conjunction with Rituals and Linguistic Anthropology", <https://www.academia.edu/52108107/Buddhist_and_Gupta_Imagery_in_Conjunction_with_Rituals_and_Linguistic_Anthropology> (23 May 2024).

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Katakis, S. E. 2019. "Copies of Greek Statuary from Greece in the Roman Imperial Period," in Handbook of Greek Sculpture, pp. 620-654.

https://sitestatic.shopster.gr/6150c0d864787b561e67912f/002796_de.pdf

Δεσπίνης, Γ. Ι. 1975. "Ακρόλιθα αγάλματα των ρωμαϊκών χρόνων," Κλασική παράδοση και νεωτερικά στοιχεια στην πλαστική της ρωμαϊκής Ελλάδας, σελ. 19-34.

https://www.amth.gr/exhibitions/exhibit-of-the-month/1902?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR1OVw-evnPAjFhwtMpFlqJQWUI4kM5bOzxQVEhcnULSZ9VlWbTTq3l-khw_aem_AZYr9N4plNoGkHmd5uf12CZEfJ48a9VrH4zd74HwwZtRaCVJSZ4d_JG92IRrazgMFbanATfW2qu2_xNIQO7JdHp-

ΤΜΗΜAΤA AΚΡOΛΙΘΟΥ AΓAΛΜAΤΟΣ ΑΘΗΝAΣ ΤYΠΟΥ MEDICI

Ancient gold of Kazakhstan

 Ancient gold of Kazakhstan[1]

Gold is one of the first materials to have been mastered by man. Its malleability, resistance to corrosion and beautiful yellow color have made it one of the main materials in the jeweler’s art. Gold is a warm metal. Its color and dull surface create an impression of latent solar energy. Thousands of years have passed since man became aware of gold. Tribes and people have appeared and passed away, different trends in art have replaced one another and yet people have always seen the reflection of the sun’s rays, sunrises and sunsets in the glitter of gold artefacts. Gold and its color were also associated with fire. Such perception is universal and is known everywhere. Gold has certain positive associations, as in expressions “hands of gold”, “a heart of gold”, “such-and-such a person is pure gold”. Such idioms exist in many languages.

Since this precious metal is imperishable, gold works of art have come down to us from the very depth of history in their original form. The abundance of ancient gold objects recovered on the territory of Kazakhstan shows that gold had been mined here since antique times. Ancient gold mines have been found in Eastern, Northern and Central Kazakhstan and in Semirechye. It should be noted, however, that certain Kazakh objects may have been imported or made from gold acquired by barter and trade with Eastern Turkestan, Middle Asia. He oldest objects illustrated are ornaments of Andronovo Bronze Age culture and testify to the emergence of the jeweler’s art in Kazakhstan as far back as in the sixteen to fourteen centuries B.C. they are not numerous and were mainly found in relatively rich graves. It is thus possible to say that the possession of gold objects indicated a definite position in society. It is known that with the Indo-Iranians already gold ornaments indicated membership of a caste (varna, pishtra) of warrior nobles and with the formation of the states – of the king’s family. Incidentally, the Indian term “varna”, like the Iranian “pishtra” means “color”. Apart from gold ornaments, red of the warriors’ clothes was also considered to be a sign of caste membership. Experts believe this kind of symbolism to have existed as far back as the Bronze Age.

Among Andronovo ornaments, the most frequent are earrings in the form of rings with closed ends. They were made of copper wire. The copper was covered with gold leaf and polished with chamois. This technique made it possible to economize in the precious metal and was also applied in early nomadic art.

So-called earrings with a socket are found in Kazakhstan burial complexes, one end being narrower, and the other flared. Such earrings were widespread and not found solely in Andronovo burial grounds. They have been discovered among the archaeological remains of other Bronze Age cultures in the Middle Age and Siberia.

Earrings and pendants consisting of one and a half turns tolled out of concave strips and are also widely represented in Andronovo culture and may be regarded as its archaeological symbol. Objects of pure gold are rare. Copper covered with leaf gold predominates. Earrings of this type are simple and not decorated. Some of gold objects –plaques from sheaths and scabbards, pins, strips are engraved with geometrical patterns: the wavy lines and triangular scallops typical of Andronovo ceramics.

Highly unusual is a bracelet of gold tube from the rich Alakul burial ground of Aibas-darasi (Central Kazakhstan). Only two pieces have survived – thick, slightly flattened tubes of gold leaf. One of the tubes has a cast cylindrical socket soldered on to it and is engraved with latch triangles. The opposite end of this link of the bracelet has the same ornament. The other piece of the bracelet is not so massive and is devoid of ornamentation. No doubt, this bracelet is prototype of the opening torques, which were spread later to the Scyth-Sak world of Eurasia. One example is the torque from the Issyk Kurgan (5th–4th centuries B.C.) Two earrings unearthed in 1980 in the Munshunkur burial ground in Eastern Semirechye date back to the Karasuk culture, Central Asian in origin. One of them, covered with: leaf gold, in no way differs from Andronovo circular earrings. The other, cast in a special form has a “male-female” fastening. Inside the ring, there are two figurines of horses, one standing behind the other. The representation is schematic and stylized: an exaggerated neck with a mane divided into locks a long, somewhat drooping muzzle and round eyes. The designs were probably carved on a soft stone mold for casting and not hammered afterwards. Stylistically, they were similar to the horses on the pommel of the bronze dagger (Seiminsko-Turbinksaya culture of Prikamye and Privolzhye of Karasuk origin), as well as to many zoomorphic designs of the Karasuk culture in Zabaikalye. This treatment of horses has been known since the 3rd millennium B.C. in the Near East (“kerku” type seals) and continued into the 2nd and 1st millennia B.C. (Luristan, Zagros and others).

The earring from Semirechye most likely dates back to the same pre-Saks period – twelfth-tenth centuries B.C., like most of the “reindeer stones” (stelae). It should be mentioned that “reindeer” pictures have been found in Southern Kazakhstan (Karatau, Aksu-Dzhabagly, Dzhungar Alatau). From the many data, it may be concluded that the “reindeer stone” of Bronze Age art was taken up by the art of the Saks, leaving an imprint on the distinctive features of the early work. NearEastern analogies on this earring testify to the western contacts of the Karasuk and relative cultures. The earring from Semirechye is so far the only example of the Karasuk Animal style executed in gold. It may possible play a role in revealing the sources of the Scytho-Saks Animal Style. Two horses motif later passes through the whole art history of the Scytho-Sak and many other Indo-Iranian ethnic groups.

It existed in the Middle Ages and after, always featuring solar symbolism and connected with the cult of the Divine Twins.According to archaeological data, the jeweler’s craft grew up on the territ ory of Kazakhstan in the late 2nd millennium B.C. The superior workmanship of the bracelet from Central Kazakhstan and the earring from Semirechye show that the art had made considerable progress by that time. Today, the emergence of the brilliant Scytho-Siberian animal style in Eurasia does not seem surprising. It continues to amaze and delight the experts with such new finds as the burial of the man in “gold clothes” from the Issyk Kurgan, the pectoral from the Tolstaya Mogila in the Ukraine and the treasures from the Kushan kings from Tell-Tepe in Afghanistan.

The Scytho-Siberian animal style is the most striking phenomenon in the history of art, Sak tribes having played the main role in the development of this style in Asia. Many of the remains of the Saks culture recovered in the 17th-19th centuries from “Chudskiye graves” in Western Siberia are now known as the Siberian Collection of Peter I. they were first brought to the Kunstkammer and then transferred to the State Hermitage. By analogy with classified and dated articles of applied art, they are regarded as artistic monuments of the early nomads, a collective term covering not only the Saks, but the Yuechzhi, Sauromatians, Ussuni, Huns and Sarmatians. The political stability of the Saks, Sauromatian and Scythian alliances in the 7th -3rd centuries B.C. resulted in the gold age of the Scytho-Siberian animal style. The triad of zoomorphic images (bird, hoofed animal, beast of prey) which had been already used in early Saks art, reflected the identity of the universe and society.

Early Saks art is represented mainly by bronze objects recovered from the Tagisken, Uigarak, Bizhe and Arzhan Kurgans in Kazakhstan. The show close links with Luristan toreutics, the remains of the Karasuk and Tagar cultures, as well as in some respects, with the pre-Saks petroglyphs of Semirechye, Altai and Mongolia. There are mainly cast objects, considerably different from those done in profile or in low relief from gold.

Of much interest are the plaques from a sheath found in Central Kazakhstan with a hammered representation of four panthers. In style, they resemble a number of other designs on the remains found on the territory from China and Mongolia to the Black Sea coastal area. The plaque depicts panthers curled up into a ball, with enlarged heads, round eyes and ears, their paws and tail ending in tiny rings.

Outlines in general are rounded. These plaques can be dated to the 6th-5th centuries B.C. A large complex of gold ornaments was unearthed by S.Chernikov while excavating wealthy kurgans of the 7th-6th centuries B.C. in Chiliktinskaya Valley (Eastern Kazakhstan). The complex consists, in the main, of clothing and weapon ornaments. The Chilikta finds were mostly gold applique works skillfully cut out of foil (boars “on points” and diamond-shaped buckles). They had been glued on to cloth or wood. The boars are of different sizes but treated in the same manner. The outlines are extremely austere. These designs resemble certain specimens of rock drawings and even Paleolithic paintings. The drop-shaped eye and triangular tusk have been cut out. The Chilikta finds prove the existence of established and highly expressive images and ornamental motifs in that early period.

The buckles in the form of a recumbent stag are most remarkable. They were also glued on to cloth and leather, as they are not pieced for sewing. It should be noted that the stags’ ears were made separately and filled in with stones and paste encrustation. A tendency to use different colors is already evident in the Chilikta artefacts. In the treatment of antlers, the stags are reminiscent of “reindeer stones”.

The image of the noble stags known from Neolithic remains of the people of Kazakhstan, Siberia, Central and Near Asia (since the 2nd millennium B.C.). In this connection it can be said that in Saks art the local tradition has been organically combined with Near-Eastern borrowings in the treatment of the stag.

On the whole, in the Scytho-Saks world the gold stag was the symbol of the sun, rebirth and death cycle in nature and its antlers were shoots of the Tree of Life. The griffin-shaped buckle and the buckle in the form of a panther curled up in a ring from the Chilikta collection have numerous analogies in developed Scythian art, whereas the representation of the fish is the symbol of water and fertility – with the fins treated in the shape of drops is unique.

As a whole, the Chilikta zoomorphic images conform to the division of the world known in different mythologies: a bird-top, the sky, animals and beasts of prey – middle, the earth, fish-bottom, and water. With the formation of states, the Saks gave this symbolism a different meaning: it began to signify power.

A typical example of this is a three-tier composition on the headdress of the “gold man”, whose grave was excavated in the Issyk kurgan near Almaty. It had not been touched, enabling us to define the regalia and symbols of power among the ancient nomads. The Issyk kurgan is a single monument of its kind. The “Issyk Cheiftain” was buried in gala or ritual attire. He wore a thin, evidently silk shirt, a short coat (kamzol) and narrow breeches of red suede and high boots without heels. His heavy belt was composed of cast plaques in the shape of a fantastic stag and elks’ heads. On this head, the chieftain wore a high conical three-sided hat (kulakh). It is exactly in such hats that the noble Saks-tigrakhaudy (literally – “in hats with pointed tops”) are depicted in relief on the staircase in Persepolis. Round his neck he has a gold torque with three loops, its ends fashioned in the form of tigers’ heads. On the fingers of his right hand were two rings: one was with a mirror, the other was with a portrait in profile of a man in a radiate crown. Near the left shoulder of the deceased lay a symbolic staff with a gold knob and a whip wound with a gold band. On the other right, fastened to a belt, in the red wooden sheath was a sword of the type used by warriors fighting on horseback; on the left, was an iron dagger in the sheath with plaques in the form of an elk and a horse. Its pommel in the shape of twin-headed griffin is overlaid with gold leaf and the blade is encrusted with plaques depicting various wild animals. The pattern of the weapons permits us to date the Issyk Kurgan to the Saks period – the 5th-4th or 4th-3rd centuries B.C.

The excellent state of preservation made it possible to undertake a sufficiently trustworthy reconstruction of the chieftain’s dress. The entire coat (kamzol) was covered with sewed on buckles in the form of trefoils and tiger’s heads, thus creating an imitation of a protective hauberk. The buckles were cut out of gold foil and sewed or glued on to the red suede as applique work. Their rhythmical alternation against the red background of the coat and high boots created an open work effect. The headgear was decorated with buckles in the shape of leopards, tigers, sculptured figures of horned and winged horses, birds, an ibex, (arkhar) (on the top of the hat) plaques depicting a mountain with “The tree of life”, arrowshaped plaques: others in the form of birds’ wings. Gold ornaments from the Issyk kurgan were made by various techniques: hammering, stamping, engraving, soldering, cold gilding, polishing, granulation, paste and tar encrustation, coloring, etc.

The majority of the large Issyk buckles in the form of animals are executed in low relief. Eyes, ribs and muscles are shown with engraved dot and comma markings, ovals, brackets and incised symbolic lines, as on the flattened reliefs and line pictures of Assyria and Achaemenid Iran. The animals are stylized and the treatment is decorative. The Issyk craftsmen preferred expressive profiles with intentionally distorted figures. The bodies of “snarling” leopards, tiger griffins (buckles on headgear), an elk and a horse (plaques from a dagger) are twisted and express the agony of death. These unusual representations of animals are possibly connected with the ancient Mesopotamian treatment of a feline beast of prey (a lion) shown in combat against a hero or God, familiar from such scenes on the cylinder seals.

The encrustations on the dagger are skillfully executed. The blood grooves are overlaid with gold plaques depicting boars, leopards (tigers), hares, goats, wolves, saigas, goitred gazelle, arkhars, foxes and snakes following one another. They are executed in what are called “clawing” poses, recalling monuments of the nomads.

Here, evidently, we have new Saks interpretation of the “animal copulation” compositions characteristic of the Middle Eastern and ancient arts. The pictures are also so tiny that the craftsmen emphasized certain visual features, exaggerating eyes, horns, ears, hooves and claws. To stress the rhythm of the composition, the convex parts of the body were emphasized with color - drop-shaped insets of cornelian and paste were stuck with tar through cuts in the shoulder blades and hindquarters.

In the Issyk kurgan, the animal figurines executed in round sculpture (winged and horned horses, birds, the arkhar on the hat, the heads of big-eared griffins on the pommel of the dagger), as compared with those made in relief are very lifelike.

Gold adornments painted red and black were found at Issyk; these are long arrowshaped plaques for headgear and an earring with clusters of coarse granulation, minute cylinders and turquoise beads. The Saks complex of the Issyk kurgan illustrates a mature, highly original art well worthy of the highest appreciation. It should be stressed out that some of the finds are not unique for Semirechye. In many other burial grounds for example, the Issyk and Talgar (most of them had been plundered) gold objects were found similar to those recovered in the Issyk Kurgan or adding to our knowledge of the art of the Saks in Semirechye.

These include, above all, earrings of twisted gold wire with pendants of clustered granulations, cylinders and beads of paste, turquoise, cornelian and chalcedony; a pin with the head in the shape of a tiger-griffin in its death agony; an iron buckle covered by a gold plaque with an interlaced design. All these objects were found in rich “royal graves”.

Επίρραφα χρυσα διακοσμητικά από το Tenlik (Εθνικό Μουσείο της Δημοκρατίας του Καζακστάν

Αριθμός αποθέματος ҚРҰМ УҚ;тк2-694/1-4;Ma 135a,b,c,d. ΓΟΜΑ 479) http://sacralkazakhstan.kz/catalog/gold_silver/318/?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR0Vh97sjkcX4JIz69ew89SU_vrDeMYlYEiI6_udx_bNw5wtCBLIbi-QLas_aem_AZOZ81PlWs46_C4JNQwrtJYQfVa9llCwvAXbEQp5YRTWdbuECmfdXbuvslmRxpPMGp7NBToZ8oJRi-WDSygRNbiN

Επιτύμβια στήλη του Δεξίλεω, 394 π.Χ., Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο Κεραμεικού

In the 3rd-2nd centuries B.C. the animal style was replaced by the encrustation style. Colored insets used rather moderately and delicately in the animal style began to come widespread. Gold objects executed in the encrustation style were recovered from three burial complexes in Kazakhstan. They are dated in general to the 3rd -1st centuries B.C.: these are decorative buckles for clothes from the Tenlik Kurgan (3rd-2nd B.C.), two bracelets from the Tuzdak locality, Karmakchinsky district, Kyzylorda Region and priestess’s ornament from the Kargaly Valley in Semirechye (2nd-1st centuries B.C.).

The most interesting of the finds from Tenlik is a number of trapezoidal plaques, evidently ornaments for clothes with a picture of horseman. He is dressed in Saks costume with a soft high conical hat and his cloak flying behind his back. The horse has a clipped mane with plumage and the knees are bent. All the horse’s trappings are shown. The sources of the picture are not clear. Such designs have been known in the Near East and Asia Minor since the end of the 2nd millennium B.C. As to style, the buckles from Tenlik recall pictures on the artefacts from the Siberian Collection of Peter I (genre compositions), from the Pazyryk kurgan V (carpet) and representations of Graeco-Bactrian art. On the whole, the horseman was characteristic of Late Hellenic art, the cult of the divine hero always being associated with it.

Other buckles from the Tenlik kurgan, cut out of foil, or stamped and pieced for sewing, feature plant motifs: trefoils, rosettes, lotus buds, shoots. Of particular interest is the motif of a “twining grape-vine” with flowers reminiscent of the decorative motifs of Hellenic art: Graeco-Bactrian, Indo-Greek and Parthian. The ornamentation of many of the objects from Tenlik is particularly reminiscent of the remains from the Berel, Shibe and Kotandy kurgans in the Altai, according to recent data of the same time as Pazyryk and also of the Hellenic art of Central Asia.

Some of the objects are close to those of Issyk, especially the ones painted in black and red.

The Tuzdak bracelet may date back to the same period as the Tenlik objects. One of them is an unnaturally elongated cast figure of a fantastic wolf with a “garland” of a griffin’s heads on the back. This bracelet has analogies with relics from AmuDarya Hoard and the Siberian Collection of Peter I and is dated at not earlier than the 3rd century B.C. on the second bracelet, which is hinged, there are pictures of two horses with twisted bodies. Round and triangular settings are filled with colored stones. Similar articles of the Hun-Sarmatian period are also available in the Siberian Collection of Peter I and they also occur among single finds of the Early Kushan period. The most remarkable complex of objects executed in the encrustation style was found in the Kargaly valley near Almaty in 1939. The data have been repeatedly published and interpreted both in our country and abroad. In our view, the description of the complex made by A.N.Bernshtam is the most correct.

A.N. Bernshtam thought that the complex in Karagaly was the burial of Ussuni priestess (shamanka). He explained the representations of so-called “Karagalin diadem” on the basis of the Turko-Mongolian mythology and epic. In his opinion, the design of the diadem is a combination of the original local, Hun and Graeco-Bactrian artistic trends, which went to make the distinctive features of Ussuni art.

According to another version, the composition of the diadem reflects Dao beliefs of ancient Iranian myths. On the diadem, alongside images and motifs typical of Chinese art (dragons, the Mountain of the World, a band of clouds), there are representations recalling Saks motifs (tiger-griffins, a boar, a goat). M. Rostovtsev, Karlgren and Laufer proved in their time that Chinese art during Chan (the 4th century B.C.) and early Han (2nd-1st centuries B.C.) periods were strongly influenced by the Hellenes and the Nomads which resulted in widespread use of the motifs and images of their art. In this connection, we may suppose that Kargaly diadem (only two parts of it are preserved) was made by a local craftsman in the traditions of Han art.

By analogy with the remains of the Han art from the Lu collection, A.N.Bernshtam dated Kargaly complex at the 1st -3rd centuries. The composition of the diadem, however, has parallels dating back to before 1st -3rd centuries, for example, the finds in Taksil and relics from the Siberian Collection of Peter I that date back to the 2nd-1st centuries. The Kargaly complex as a whole can therefore be given an earlier dating than that suggested by A.N.Bershtam, that is between the 2nd-1st centuries B.C.

Other ornaments from Kargalinsky Hoard include buckles in the shape of winged goats, shaped plaques etc, and have parallels in developed Saks art, particularly among landscape compositions from the Siberian Collections of Peter I and the individual objects from the Aral Sea area. The encrustation style, whose development was to some extent stimulated by the Central Asian connections of the Saks, paved the way for the spread of the Polychrome style in the art of the people who inhabited Kazakhstan. This style began to be spread here in the 3rd-5th centuries. Among the remains of the Polychrome Style, two groups are to be distinguished: first group – insets of colored (red, orange) stones in soldered on mountings, granulated ornaments, filigree band etc.; second group – cloisonné encrustation, the entire  surface being covered with stone insets and no ground visible.

The first group of objects, in which Hun traditions predominate, includes diadems, kolts, rings, earrings, belt ends, buckles, etc., the second group – articles with cloisonné encrustation: bracelets, buckles, sheaths, plaques from sword hafts, gagbits. The number of articles in the Polychrome Style found on the territory of Kazakhstan is growing every year and now approaching that of the Black Sea coast. There are already more than ten kolts (temple pendants), the most typical examples of this style in Kazakhstan and neighboring Kyrgyzstan.

Imported polychrome artefacts were found in Sarmatian Lebedevka burial, which was excavated recently. Among the finds were Early-Roman imported objects – glass goblets, etc. a number of round gilded buckles – round plaques with a boss in the center and with cloisonné and plant ornament, also decorative bands in the form of “rope” and representations of heads of birds and goats – made, perhaps, by craftsmen of the Middle East in XII-XIV centuries. A massive ring, recovered from Lebedevka with dark-cherry almandine insets in soldered-on mountings,edged with melted granulations was evidently made in the Black Sea coast or in Central Asia.

A great many miscellaneous polychrome articles were accidentally discovered in 1928in a burial near Lake Borovoye. A.N.Bernshtam and I.P.Zasetskaya published the descriptions. They include buckles, buttons, plaques from sheaths and richly granulated medallions with stones in cloisonné or soldered-on settings.

Semiprecious stones (garnet, cornelian) in the form of hemisphere or flat seal were fixed in with tar.

Of special note is a silver torque with an end like a horned dragon’s head withround garnet insets and decorated with triangles and clusters of melted granulations from a burial in the Kara-Agach valley in the former Akmolisnky uyezd (excavated by Kozyerv, 1904).

The finds from Semirechye are represented by a series of earrings and kolts. The kolts from Aktasy burial ground are magnificent; they are decorated with tiny triangles and circular inlays of dark-cherry garnet, minute pyramids of granulation of the tubular rays of the disk. They were found in the burial of a noble woman ofLate Ussuni period (3 rd-5th centuries) in the Kuraily Valley, Kengesky District, Almaty Region and is the best example of the kolts made in Polychrome Style of Hun period.

More modest kolts of this kind with insets of colored paste were found in one of the graves of Kok-Mardan burial ground near a settlement of the Kanguy period in Otrar Oasis (Shymkent region). Also discovered here were polychrome objects made of copper with insets of glass and paste, testifying to the fact that this style hag influenced the development of the jeweler’s art near Syrdarya towns in the Early Middle Ages. In Kzyl-Kainar Tobe settlement, a torque, a gold cord and earrings were found. These finds permit us to believe that certain towns in Central Asia were centers for the production of polychromic jewelry.

A collection of gold objects, some executed in the Polychrome Style was discovered by accident in 1915 in a cave on the eastern shore of Lake Batyr in the Mangyshlak Region. The finds include a miniature flask and a cup. Ring-shaped tabs are soldered on to the body of the flask and its cylindrical lid. Its surface is decorated with bands of imitation granulation and filigree. The cup is cylindrical in form and on its surface there are thin horizontal lines left after lathe treatment under pressure. Convex gold plaques with a tiny loop on the reverse are sewed on the external side of a linen head band covered with red silk. Among the finds executed in the Polychrome Style near the Lake Batyr are the pommel of a sword or a dagger in the form of a rock crystal hemisphere in a cruciform gold surround decorated with almandine and colored glass stones in soldered settings and also a pair of earrings. Each consists of a ring with a bow-shaped element hinged to the ring, a square and two drop-shaped plates with garnet insets and four pendants of pearls, corals and gold beads. Relying on numerous analogies with artefacts from the Bosporus and the Caucasus, the Batyr collection has been dated by K.M. Skalon at the 3rd century.

The art of the late nomads is represented in the Album by a small collection of gold objects from Semirechye. A wealthy medieval burial was discovered by chance, in the spring of 1980, during excavations on the outskirts of Chingeldy settlement in Almaty region. The burial had been destroyed and only some of the relics had survived. The large gold open-work belt buckles were found in the form of “mystic knot” with oval clips for hanging up. The buckles are stamped and engraved. They are hallow and composed of two parts soldered together, giving an illusion of solidity. On the reverse there are two loops for fastening. In addition to these buckles, the belt was decorated with small plaques in the form of a rosette with fasteners. Another find was a schematic representation of a dragon cut out of golden leaf. There was also a bowl made of an alloy of silver and gold with a shaped horizontal handle engraved with lotus flowers, a twining grapevine, clouds and other objects. The bowl is likely to have been beaten out on a shaped wooden block. The finds from Chingeldy almost certainly date back to the late 13th -14th centuries.

Ο ΒΕΛΛΕΡΕΦΟΝΤΗΣ ΣΤΟ ΑΡΧΑΙΟ ΚΑΖΑΚΣΤΑΝ[5]

These objects are only part of the ancient gold of Kazakhstan, but they give some idea of the great contribution to the treasury of the world’s art made by the tribes and people who once inhabited Kazakhstan. Extensive archaeological research carried out in the republic every year brings new discoveries and therefore, there is every prospect that the collection will continue to grow in future. 

Silver Phalerae with a Depiction of Bellerophon and the Chimaira from a Sarmatian Burial in Volodarka (Western Kazakhkstan)

ΒΑΣΙΛΙΚΟΣ ΤΥΜΒΟΣ ΤΟΥ ISSYK - XINJIANG (ΚΑΖΑΚΣΤΑΝ)

στο βορειότερο άκρο της Xinjiang (κοιλάδα Ily) .. εκτιμάται ότι κατά την περίοδο από την Εποχή του Σιδήρου (έβδομος ως δεύτερο αι. π.Χ.) έδρασαν αρχικώς οι Σάκες και εν συνεχεία οι Wusun (Ισσηδόνες ?, έχουν ευρεθεί δε και σημαντικοί τύμβοι όπως ο Issyk kurgan (χρονολογούμενος στον τρίτο / δεύτερο αι. π.Χ.), όπου ετάφη ο περίφημος Χρυσούς Πολεμιστής.[9_6] Τα ευρήματα του τύμβου παραβάλλονται αισθητικά προς παρόμοια από το Kargaly,[9_7] χρονολογούμενα μεταξύ δευτέρου αι. π.Χ. και πρώτου μ.Χ., αλλά και από το κοιμητήριο του Majiayuan, των Rong του τρίτου αι. π.Χ.[9_8] .. Σχετική με τα φτερά ή τα ανεμίζοντα ενδύματα μπορεί να θεωρηθεί η τοποθέτηση φτερών επί διαδήματος κεφαλής, το οποίο έχει θεωρηθεί ως απαραίτητο εξάρτημα των σαμάνων της στέπας.[9_45] Αυτού του είδους η αμφίεση βλέπουμε, ενδεικτικά, να κοσμεί την κεφαλή του Χρυσού Πολεμιστή του Issyk και της ιέρειας του Ak-Alakha I,[9_46] ενώ απαντάται ακόμη και στo βασίλειο της Silla στην σημερινή Κορέα,9_47 δεν απέχει δε και από τα Σκυθικά klaafs ή τους Ελληνικούς καλάθους τους συνδεδεμένους με την λατρεία της Δήμητρας.[9_48] Σημειώνεται ότι ο Yi Songnan στο έργο του σχετικά με την προέλευση των διαδημάτων τα οποία ανασκάφηκαν στο Geongju και ανήκαν στο βασίλειο Silla υποστηρίζει ότι έχουν Βακτριανή προέλευση και έντονη Ελληνική επιρροή ως προς την τεχνική και το ύφος, αφού άλλωστε εμφανίζονται ανάλογα του τεκμηρίου από τον Χρυσό Λόφο (Tillya Tepe).[9_48a1] .. Στην ίδια κατηγορία ανήκει αλυσίδα ανήκουσα στην Συλλογή Singer, ενώ η τεχνική υιοθετήθηκε και σε ενώτιο του τύμβου Issyk.[9_85] Η τεχνική του διπλού βρόχου, αποδιδόμενη με τον όρο loop-in-loop, εμφανίσθηκε ήδη από τα τέλη της τρίτης χιλιετίας π.Χ. στην Ur, την Αίγυπτο της VI δυναστείας και την Τροία, ενώ εξαίρετα παραδείγματά της απαντούν στον Θησαυρό της Αίγινας και κοσμούν τον τάφο του Γρύπα Πολεμιστή της Πύλου.[9_86] Η τεχνική κατέστη ιδιαίτερα δημοφιλής κατά την πρώιμη Ελληνιστική περίοδο, οπότε και υιοθετήθηκε σε μεγάλη κλίμακα από τους Έλληνες κοσμηματοποιούς.

Ο ΟΙΔΙΠΟΥΣ ΣΕ ΑΡΓΥΡΑ ΤΕΧΝΟΥΡΓΗΜΑΤΑ ΤΩΝ ΟΥΝΝΩΝ ΤΟΥ 5ου αι. ΑΚΟΛΟΥΘΟΥΝΤΑ ΤΟ ΥΠΟΔΕΙΓΜΑ ΤΩΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΤΙΚΩΝ ή ΜΕΓΑΡΙΚΩΝ ΦΙΑΛΩΝ

Η Ουννική κούπα διακοσμημένη με σκηνές από τον μύθο του Οιδίποδα. Το μετάλλιο παρουσιάζει το Ζωροαστρικό ήθος αυτής της ιστορίας: αντιτίθεται στον υπηρέτη που είναι ένοχος πολλαπλών ψεμάτων και στην ευγενή Ιοκάστη που αντιπροσωπεύει την αλήθεια. ενώ η αρχική εκδοχή τόνιζε τη σημασία της αυτογνωσίας μέσω του Οιδίποδα. Η παραπάνω σκηνή δείχνει την αρχή της ιστορίας με την εγκατάλειψη του παιδιού Οιδίποδα κάτω από το βλέμμα μιας Ινδο-Ιρανικής θεάς. Επιπλέον, ο τεχνίτης αναπαριστούσε τις σκηνές σύμφωνα με την εκδοχή του μύθου που σκηνοθέτησε ο Σοφοκλής μεταξύ 430 και 420 π.Χ., σε μια εποχή –περίπου 900 χρόνια αργότερα– που αυτή η εκδοχή δεν ήταν πλέον της μόδας στη Ρώμη.

https://www.lefigaro.fr/culture/patrimoine/aux-confins-de-l-inde-la-chine-et-l-empire-d-alexandre-le-mythe-oedipe-adapte-par-les-cultures-qui-l-ont-adopte-20221223?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR1mBwk_AVyHrYwg58tnrZHvpgpCMmP-HptTiZ3qvrMrxYWJXxMjbm-i0xA_aem_Aav_8Pca2R9I8Vy_XEsVfCS2F-0fJsLSiKKiPpuEkz-IC0Bj1r5V38uGsCfXRdWu0A4kMsSpgyj3f0pqAyAeEcun

Ανακαλυφθείσα το 1903 στο σημερινό Καζακστάν, μία αργυρά φιάλη του τετάρτου αιώνα προσφέρει μιαν εξωτική αναπαράσταση έργου του Σοφοκλέους, σύμφωνα με μια μελέτη που διεξήχθη από το CNRS και το Collège de France.

Ο ελληνιστικός πολιτισμός έφθασε μέχρι τα σύνορα των αυτοκρατοριών, στις πύλες της Ινδίας και της Κίνας, σχεδόν χίλια χρόνια μετά το πέρασμα του στρατού του Μεγάλου Αλεξάνδρου. Αυτή είναι η ιστορία που αφηγείται, στην ουσία, η διακόσμηση μίας αργυράς φιάλης που διατηρείται στο Ερμιτάζ, στην Αγία Πετρούπολη. Με την ερμηνεία των σκηνών και των χαρακτήρων, δύο ερευνητές κατάφεραν να σηκώσουν το πέπλο που αιωρούνταν πάνω από την διακόσμηση αυτού του κυπέλλου για έναν αιώνα. Οι γυμνοί άρρενες και οι ελκυστικές γυναίκες του εμφανίζονταν, στην πραγματικότητα, σε πέντε σκηνές από τον Βασιλέα Οιδίποδα, έργο που γράφτηκε τον 5ο αιώνα π.Χ. από τον Σοφοκλή. Με μια διαφορά: η τραγωδία έχει εδώ πάρει τοπικές γεύσεις.

«Έχουμε αποκωδικοποιήσει ένα αγγείο στο σταυροδρόμι τριών πολιτισμών, του οποίου οι εικόνες ελληνικής εμπνεύσεως έχουν ερμηνευτεί εκ νέου, αναδιαμορφωθεί και προσαρμοστεί κάτω από το βλέμμα των Ινδών και των Σασσανιδών», υποστηρίζει η Anca Dan, ερευνήτρια στο CNRS και συν-συγγραφέας μιας μελέτης που δημοσιεύτηκε. για αυτό το αγγείο στο τελευταίο τεύχος του επιστημονικού περιοδικού Asian Journal . Η ερμηνευτική εργασία που ολοκληρώθηκε φέτος αναδεικνύει την επιμονή, αλλά και τις μεταλλάξεις του ελληνικού πολιτισμού στους δυτικούς πρόποδες του θιβετιανού οροπεδίου, τον 4ο αιώνα μ.Χ.

Το αγγείο έχει μαγέψει όσο και μπερδέψει τους ερευνητές ήδη από την ανακάλυψή του το 1903, κοντά στη σημερινή πόλη Kustanai (Καζακστάν). Κάτι ήταν λάθος. «Αρκετοί μελετητές παρατήρησαν, κατά τη διάρκεια του 20ου αιώνα, ότι τα σχήματα που αναπαριστώνονταν ήταν ελληνορωμαϊκής προελεύσεως, αλλά δεν ξέραμε τι να εμπιστευτούμε για να κατανοήσουμε την έννοια της διακοσμήσεως, εξηγεί η Anca Dan. Το σκηνικό είναι φυσικά ελληνιστικό, αλλά τα ρούχα θυμίζουν αυτά της Γκαντάρα, στην βόρεια Ινδία, ενώ ορισμένες χειρονομίες είναι τυπικά Ιρανικές και Ζωροαστρικές ».

Ινδικά ρούχα, ιρανικές χειρονομίες

Τα ινδικά νομίσματα από την δυναστεία Gupta, από τον 4ο έως τον 6ο αιώνα της εποχής μας, παρέδωσαν, τη δεκαετία του 1980, ένα πρώτο κλειδί για το μυστήριο. Υπάρχουν παρόμοιες παραστάσεις μιας ινδουιστικής θεάς , στη στάση της βασιλικής χαλάρωσης (rajalilasana). Οι υφολογικές σχέσεις καθιστούν δυνατή την χρονολόγηση του αγγείου στην Ύστερη Αρχαιότητα και όχι στην εποχή του Αλεξάνδρου και των διαδόχων του (τέλη 4ου – 2ου αιώνα π.Χ.).

Αλλά το ακριβές νόημα των σκηνών που κοσμούν τα εξωτερικά τοιχώματα της φιάλης ξεφεύγει από κάθε κατανόηση. Φαίνεται ότι υπάρχει μία ή περισσότερες λογοτεχνικές πηγές. «Προηγούμενες υποθέσεις είχαν προτείνει να δούμε σε αυτό ένα κολάζ από διαφορετικά έργα του Ευριπίδου. Αλλά δεν ήταν αυτό, λέει η Anca Dan . Αυτές οι αναπαραστάσεις της ελληνικής επιρροής που παράγονται στην Κεντρική Ασία είναι πολύπλοκες. Δεν μπορούσαν να κατανοηθούν μόνο από τους Ελληνιστές .

Έτσι, ο ερευνητής εργάστηκε στο αγγείο από την Kustanai με τον Frantz Grenet. Καθηγητής στο Collège de France, υπεύθυνος για την έδρα της Ιστορίας και των Πολιτισμών της Προϊσλαμικής Κεντρικής Ασίας, ο Frenet συνυπογράφει τηn μελέτη που δημοσιεύτηκε στο Asian Journal . «Συγκρίνοντας αυτό το κύπελλο με τη σειρά των λεγόμενων «βακτριανών» μπολ στην οποία ανήκει, μπορέσαμε να καθορίσουμε μια σειρά αναγνώσεως των σκηνών», περιγράφει ο F. Grenet. Μόλις προσδιορίστηκε το νόημα, είδαμε ότι μια σκηνή που παρουσίαζε ένα εγκαταλελειμμένο μωρό που το πήρε μέσα ένας βοσκός ήταν κοντά στην αρχή της ιστορίας και ότι τελείωσε με μια γυναίκα έτοιμη να κρεμαστεί. Είτε η αρχή είτε το τέλος του Οιδίποδος Τυρράνου.

ΣΥΝΕΧΕΙΑ ΑΡΘΡΟΥ LE FIGARO Η σκηνή του γάμου της Ιοκάστης με τον Οιδίποδα απεικονίζεται σύμφωνα με το Ζωροαστρικό έθιμο. Η ανακάλυψη προκαλεί έκπληξη, δεδομένης της χρονολογήσεως του αγγείου. «Το έργο του Σοφοκλέους για τον Οιδίποδα είχε τη μεγαλύτερη δημοφιλία του κατά την κλασική και ελληνιστική εποχή, σύμφωνα και με την εκτίμηση του Αριστοτέλους. Όμως αυτήν την προεξάρχουσα θέση του κατά τις αρχές της ρωμαϊκής περιόδου αναλαμβάνει το κείμενο του Ευριπίδου, σημειώνει Dan. Η δυτική εικονογραφία του μύθου τονίζει την αναμέτρηση με την Σφίγγα: Ο Οιδίπους είναι ο μόνος άνθρωπος που γνωρίζει τον ορισμό του Ανθρώπου, ενώ δεν γνωρίζει τον εαυτό του, ούτε ποιοί είναι οι γεννήτορές του. Αλλά δεν είναι καθόλου αυτή η εικόνα που βρίσκουμε στο αγγείο, όπου βλέπουμε τον Οιδίποδα εγκαταλελειμμένο στα παιδικά του χρόνια, να σκοτώνει τον πατέρα του, να παντρεύεται τη μητέρα του και τυφλός, να εγκαταλείπει την πόλη. Οιδίπους Τύραννος

Και για καλό λόγο, η περιοχή όπου παρήχθη αυτή η σειρά αγγείων, παλαιότερα γνωστή ως Βακτρία, δεν ευρέθη ποτέ απευθείας κάτω από τη ρωμαϊκή κυριαρχία. Από την άλλη, ήταν για ένα διάστημα μια από τις πιο απομακρυσμένες κτήσεις της Μακεδονικής Αυτοκρατορίας. Τα ινδοελληνικά βασίλεια διαδέχθηκαν την κατάκτηση του Αλεξάνδρου και συνέχισαν να προωθούν τον ελληνιστικό πολιτισμό – συμπεριλαμβανομένου του έργου του Σοφοκλή – στις βόρειες στέπες της Μ. Ασίας.

Frantz Grenet

Η περικοπή, ωστόσο, δεν μεταφέρει αρκετά το πνεύμα της ιστορίας του Σοφοκλή. Το προσαρμόζει. «Η Ιοκάστη, η μητέρα του Οιδίποδα, είναι πανταχού παρούσα και πολύ σεξουαλική, είναι ενδεδυμένη με ελληνοβουδιστικό τρόπο, παριστάνεται με τον τρόπο μιας Ινδής πριγκίπισσας, με γεμάτους γοφούς και σημαδισμένο στήθος. Οι γάμοι της με τον γιο της κατέχουν εξέχουσα θέση εδώ, ενώ το επεισόδιο παραδοσιακά επισκιάζεται στη δυτική τέχνη. Και ο Οιδίπους, με ηρωικό γυμνό, χαρίζει ένα λουλούδι στη μητέρα του – μια χειρονομία Ζωροαστρική. Όλα αυτά είναι πολύ ερωτικά και θα ήταν πολύ συγκλονιστικά στη Ρώμη ή στην Ελλάδα!», τονίζει ο Frantz Grenet.

Ο μύθος γίνεται αντιληπτός διαφορετικά στον περσικό κόσμο, όπου οι αιμομικτικοί γάμοι, σε αντίθεση με την πλειονότητα των ελληνικών και ρωμαϊκών πόλεων, θεωρούνταν πολύ ευσεβείς. Το τραγικό ζευγάρι γίνεται ένα υποδειγματικό ζευγάρι, ένα «ζωροαστρικό ηθικό μοντέλο», σύμφωνα με τα λόγια της μελέτης. « Εορτάζοντας τον αιμομικτικό γάμο του Οιδίποδα, η ελληνική τραγωδία μεταμορφώνεται ριζικά!» λέει γελώντας η Άνκα Νταν . Το ερμηνευτικό και ηθικό κλειδί αυτής της εκδοχής της ιστορίας βρίσκεται λοιπόν αλλού, στην προδοσία ενός υπηρέτη που γλίτωσε το παιδί - τον Οιδίποδα - τον οποίο υποτίθεται ότι θα σκότωνε. Αυτός ο δουλοπρεπής χαρακτήρας έκρυβε την αλήθεια για τον δολοφόνο του Λάιου (ο πατέρας του Οιδίποδος), και τράπηκε σε φυγή αντί να παραδώσει όλη την αλήθεια στην Ιοκάστη, την ερωμένη του. Η τραγωδία εδώ προκύπτει από τα ψέματα, το υπέρτατο κακό στον Ζωροαστρισμό».

Το αγγείο Kustanai συμβάλλει στο να ρίξει άλλο φως στους πληθυσμούς των οάσεων της Κεντρικής Ασίας γύρω στον 4ο αιώνα μ.Χ. Εκείνη την εποχή, αυτό το τμήμα των Δρόμων του Μεταξιού βρισκόταν υπό την κυριαρχία των Ουννικών λαών , των οποίων η βαρβαρότητα, που καταγγέλλεται ευρέως από ξένες πηγές, τώρα επανεκτιμάται από τους ερευνητές. « Οι Ούννοι πάσχουν από μια κακή φήμη που διακινούν οι δυτικές πηγές, οι οποίες τους εξισώνουν με αιμοδιψείς άγριους», λυπάται η Άνκα Νταν. Ωστόσο, υπογραμμίζει ο ερευνητής, αυτό το οιδιπόδειο κύπελλο θα μπορούσε να ανήκει σε μια Ουννική ελίτ που γνωρίζει το νόημα της ιστορίας της. Και κληρονόμος μιας γενεαλογίας εξακολουθούσε να αναγνωρίζει ελάχιστα πολιτιστικές μεταφορές. Έτσι, σε μια ινδική και ιρανική μορφή ο μύθος του Οιδίποδα συνέχισε να ακμάζει, και αυτό μέχρι τις πύλες της Άπω Ανατολής. EIKONA ΜΕ ΤΗΝ ΣΤΑΣΗ rajalilasana <https://www.sothebys.com/.../a-magnificent-and-extremely...>

ΔΙΑΦΟΡΑ ΤΕΧΝΟΥΡΓΗΜΑΤΑ ΑΠΟ ΤΥΜΒΟΥΣ ΝΟΜΑΔΩΝ - ΜΕ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗ ΕΠΙΡΡΟΗ (φωτο & τίτλος εικόνας από  Sergey Yatsenko, σχόλια του αναρτώντος..)

Wooden vessel with griffin, Philippovka, the 4th c. BCE

Greek-Sarmatian glass cantharos {ΚΑΝΘΑΡΟΣ} with gold decor, the 2th c. BCE, Severskaya {ΜΑΥΡΗ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑ, ΠΟΤΑΜΟΣ ΥΠΑΝΙΣ, ΠΑΡΑ ΤΗΝ ΟΛΒΙΑ}

Female diadem with 5 World Trees and surrounded dears, mountain goats and ducks and the Greek head of goddess {ΕΛΛΗΝΙΔΑ ΘΕΑ} on the base of the central World Tree, Khokhlach barrow, the late 1st c. CE

Agate phalera with lions from Dachi barrow, the late 1st c. CE[10]

"TWO GOLDEN BRACELETS FROM OLBIA IN THE WALTERS ART GALLERY", M.YU. TREISTER Trefoils and vine leaves

The trefoil laurel ornament of the Walters bracelets from Olbia (Figs. 5, 8-12) is paralleled in a hinged Hellenistic bracelet with central oval garnets reported to be found on the island of Mykonos. This bracelet was formerly in the collection of Lord Melchett, and was sold at Sotheby’s in 1965.29 A similar pattern frames a head of a Maenad on a gold medallion from the Blacas collection in the British Museum30 and the central inlay on a gold fibula from Severskaya barrow in the Kuban basin dated to the late 2nd century BC.31 Trefoil framing with green and blue enamel as well as oval and circular �at and cabochon inlay decorate the oval phalerae and horse-bits from the cache of barrow No. 1 in Dachi near Azov which dates to the second half of the 1st century AD.32 Additionally, trefoil pattern with blue enamel decorates a gold lunula-pendant from a necklace found in Vize B tomb in Thrace and dated to the 1st century AD.33

The Tanais town governor Trython as the Sarmatian cavalry man, the late 2nd c. CE, Tanais, Bosporus Greek-Barbarian kingdom

ΤΡΥΦΩΝ ΑΔΡΟΜΕΝΟΥ ΑΝΕΘΗΚΕΑ, Τάναϊς (Ροστόβ, Don), Τρύφων ενδεδυμένος ως Σαρμάτης ιππέας,

http://blacksea.ehw.gr/forms/fLemmaBodyExtended.aspx?lemmaID=11287&fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR11jorf-QRjv8qp73PWCE4_wHAKkK0VfAPxhCAaPC7DTQbjtO_P5crnm-c_aem_AauAsLcJ9mY9pH0L3tgZKqE8a0O4aYyFH9wjDYsY3UP-zqDrNOmIrDgRP77BP5gt9hC90v-Mk-lS69f84wkC7nlh

Ο Ταναΐτης αντιβασιλέας του κρατιδίου της βόρειας Αζοφικής ήταν υποτελής στους Ρωμαίους, αλλά ούτε η Ρώμη ούτε η Κωνσταντινούπολη αργότερα θέλησαν να καταλύσουν την αυτονομία των «μιγάδων» ακριτών της Μαιώτιδος, που φρουρούσαν το πιο απομακρυσμένο σύνορο του «δυτικού» κόσμου.

Η τέχνη του αναγλύφου είναι ελληνική (με ανατολίτικα στοιχεία της εποχής). Η απεικόνιση θυμίζει τον Ήρωα καβαλάρη, η λατρεία του οποίου διαδόθηκε ιδιαίτερα τον 1ο-3ο αι. (κυρίως στη Θράκη και στη μικρασιατική ενδοχώρα). Τα ενδύματα του Τρύφωνος είναι βαρβαρικά (εκτός από τον χιτώνα που ανεμίζει). Ναί «ήμεθα ένα κράμα εδώ», που θα έλεγε ο Καβάφης. Αυτό το δυναμικό παραμεθόριο μείγμα των Διγενών.

Μουσείο Ερμιτάζ, Αγία Πετρούπολη

ΣΗΜΕΙΩΣΕΙΣ

[1]. https://88.204.166.8/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/ed1/ed10e93350336e55b2eee91be238ea80.pdf 

[5]. Treister 2012.

[10]. Treister 2002.

ΒΙΒΛΙΟΓΡΑΦΙΑ

https://88.204.166.8/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/ed1/ed10e93350336e55b2eee91be238ea80.pdf 

Ancient gold of Kazakhstan

ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟΙ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΣΤΙΚΟΙ ΑΠΟΗΧΟΙ ΣΤΟ ΑΡΧΑΙΟ ΚΑΖΑΚΣΤΑΝ - ΚΙΡΓΙΣΤΑΝ - Greek (Hellenistic) cultural echoes at Kazakstan / Kirgistan, <https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=pfbid02i1JD2S3mNyFLdtoKyj2cP8YaWkFQqiFokbswLoanM8wwVc2sFcVAoe3NZysAN9b9l&id=100052896971032&__cft__[0]=AZUnqK78YLm6mLxyxp-phNpoklkXyDoPKhZ-bjQW_YBRFz0Q5OaYV5fNAN1cwSEIt1j8dKHKF0mSkurOMmeK6c4nBbWzFYR4mp1GoTUFyx-gXWl2Ja424QdM40a2WzMNRf_oObG9afANm8y0aniv5Tl2fSTV4agl8cTumtHVHwNlUQ&__tn__=%2CO%2CP-R>

http://sacralkazakhstan.kz/catalog/gold_silver/318/?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR07Befp6UUBhPMh76byGKOqLRWGjDjvQdpG8md7EuYzaP8BDT9dJPs2BT4_aem_Ab2v2StDM62Uq9H7hCyC_W3wUc9_vw_hQJYhrN_yxV6puTO9wwOZ0d346qUHB9OGsih_8SV546-mlGa_taL2V-rg

Қазақстанның ұлттық Казынасы (Εθνικό Υπουργείο Οικονομικών του Καζακστάν, Κατάλογος, Αρχαιολογικά αντικείμενα από πολύτιμα μέταλλα)

https://www.academia.edu/34935918/Golden_Plate_from_Wusun_Grave_in_Grotto_of_Kargaly_Gorge_%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D1%83%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5_%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B_Almaty_2017_?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR2X2G3WoCy8Ij_fGPEocjVtp18PfGfbgLppmZjyfF1D4_XFLRcjGo_2AaU_aem_Ab3p7QIbyWl9vgDm3FaCY5teFkeFLzj1ZoDlFt_LWlDHKNH1z4hRFBWmo2JMPdkz7WOtgM_slzvXtb03uQlPmYV9

Yatsenko, S. 2017. "Golden Plate from Wusun Grave in Grotto of Kargaly Gorge / Золотая пластина из усуньского погребения в гроте ущелья Каргалы," History and Archaeology of Semirechie (История и археология Семиречья) 5, pp. 143-155.

https://colorsandstones.eu/2023/09/25/lebedevka-burial-ground-5th-c-bce-western-kazakhstan/?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR2gT5pi-w9fP113XFQhht6muYOJTpLieL6kbxEIlfSsOnhwnnCMmWJZxRA_aem_Ab34A1FFtzXIlh6HtxKVCAaDU453qDLsu5CTfZ34AiKejdxwKUPCAssuatLzIxHby-GKA3hfXDywlYBqTyYxUe57

Lebedevka burial ground, 5th C BCE, Western Kazakhstan

25 September 2023DATA BASE, FEMALE BURIAL, Kazakhstan, VESSELS

http://www.museum24h.com/tlm/filestorefg/a1/2016/08/15/02004c4f4f5011e662efbed829057c70.caj?ori_name=R38051_003_%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E8%A5%BF%E5%9F%9F%E9%A6%96%E9%A5%B0%E8%BF%B0%E7%95%A5_%E5%91%A8%E4%BA%91.caj

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.museum24h.com%2Ftlm%2Ffilestorefg%2Fa1%2F2016%2F08%2F15%2F02004c4f4f5011e662efbed829057c70.caj%3Fori_name%3DR38051_003_%25E5%258F%25A4%25E4%25BB%25A3%25E8%25A5%25BF%25E5%259F%259F%25E9%25A6%2596%25E9%25A5%25B0%25E8%25BF%25B0%25E7%2595%25A5_%25E5%2591%25A8%25E4%25BA%2591.caj&psig=AOvVaw1yIJ9jNB-xBjjoZUySa1L-&ust=1715930194185000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBQQjhxqFwoTCPCP8LnQkYYDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE

古代西域首饰述略 周 云 （新疆艺术学院美术系 新疆 乌鲁木齐 830049）

A brief review of jewelry from the ancient Western Regions Zhou Yun (Department of Fine Arts, Xinjiang Art Institute, Urumqi, Xinjiang 830049)

https://www.lefigaro.fr/culture/patrimoine/aux-confins-de-l-inde-la-chine-et-l-empire-d-alexandre-le-mythe-oedipe-adapte-par-les-cultures-qui-l-ont-adopte-20221223?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR1mBwk_AVyHrYwg58tnrZHvpgpCMmP-HptTiZ3qvrMrxYWJXxMjbm-i0xA_aem_Aav_8Pca2R9I8Vy_XEsVfCS2F-0fJsLSiKKiPpuEkz-IC0Bj1r5V38uGsCfXRdWu0A4kMsSpgyj3f0pqAyAeEcun

Cherner, S. 2022. "Perse, indien, hunnique… Le mythe d'Œdipe adapté par les cultures qui l'ont adopté," Le Figaro - Culture, <> (16 May 2024).

Dan, A., F. Grenet. 2022. "Oedipus and Jocasta on a 'Bactrian' Silver Bowl in the Hermitage, c. 350-500," Journal Asiatique 310 (1), pp. 55-79.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3046904

Kurt Weitzmann. 1943. "Three "Bactrian" Silver Vessels with Illustrations from Euripides," The Art Bulletin 25 (4), pp. 289-324. 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270635236_Silver_Phalerae_with_a_Depiction_of_Bellerophon_and_the_Chimaira_from_a_Sarmatian_Burial_in_Volodarka_Western_Kazakhkstan_A_Reappraisal_of_the_Question_of_the_So-Called_Graeco-Bactrian_Style_in_Hellen

Treister, M. 2012. "Silver Phalerae with a Depiction of Bellerophon and the Chimaira from a Sarmatian Burial in Volodarka (Western Kazakhkstan). A Reappraisal of the Question of the So-Called Graeco-Bactrian Style in Hellenistic Toreutics," Ancient Cilvilizations from Scythia to Siberia 18(1), pp. 51-109.

https://www.academia.edu/1885195/M_Treister_Two_Golden_Bracelets_from_Olbia_in_the_Walters_Art_Gallery

Treister, M. 2002. "Two Golden Bracelets from Olbia in the Walters Art Gallery,", AncCivScytSib 8.1–2, pp. 17–68.